1. MARRIED WOMEN’S (NON)EMPLOYMENT AND THE INTERPLAY OF HUSBAND’S AND WIFE’S EDUCATION JEWS AND MUSLIMS IN ISRAEL 2001-2008

2. VERED KRAUS HAIFA UNIVERSITY WOUT ULTEE RADBOUD UNIVERSITY NIJMEGEN YUVAL YONAY HAIFA UNIVERSITY RC 28 HAIFA, MAY 8-11, 2010

4. THIS PAPER IS ABOUT TWO TABLES THEY PERTAIN TO ISRAEL IN 2001-2008 AND CONTAIN ALL PERTINENT CASES IN THE ISRAELI LABOUR FORCE SURVEYS FROM 2001 TO 2008 THE FIRST TABLE CROSS-CLASSIFIES FOR JEWISH MARRIED WOMEN AGED 18-54 YEARS WITH THREE OR MORE CHILDREN THEIR (NON)EMPLOYMENT AGAINST THEIR LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND THE LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF THEIR HUSBAND THE SECOND TABLE DOES THE SAME FOR MUSLIM WOMEN

5. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW38638853 MIDDLE57678570 HIGH58708580 TOTAL41658562 JEWISH WOMEN, PERCENT EMPLOYED THE ABSOLUTE N FOT THE 58% HH-WL IS 90, THE LOWEST IN THIS TABLE

6. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW 42768 9 MIDDLE 5287420 HIGH12428750 TOTAL 5297915 MUSLIM WOMEN, PERCENT EMPLOYED THE ABSOLUTE N FOT THE 68% HL-WH IS 66, THE LOWEST IN BOTH TABLES

8. THE RESEARCH QUESTION: EXPLAINING WOMEN’S (NON)EMPLOYMENT THREE CLASSICAL EXPLANATIONS: FACTORIAL ‘EXPLANATION’ EXPLANATION FROM ECONOMICS EXPLANATION FROM SOCIOLOGY

9. FACTORIAL ‘EXPLANATION’: WOMAN’S EDUCATION MARITAL STATUS NUMBER OF CHILDREN AGE PLACE OF RESIDENCE SOMETIMES INTERACTIONS, MOSTLY WITHOUT SOME GUIDING IDEA

10. HERE WE ARE CONCERNED WITH INTERACTIONS WE ASSUME THAT A HIGHER NUMBER OF CHILDREN IS PROHIBITIVE AND SUPPRESSES OR WEAKENS OTHER EFFECTS SUCH AS THE POSITIVE EFFECT OF WOMAN’S EDUCATION ON HER CHANCES OF EMPLOYMENT THAT IS WHY WE MADE TABLES FOR MARRIED WOMEN WITH AT LEAST THREE CHILDREN

11. A TESTING GROUND FOR ECONOMIC VERSUS SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: FEMALE (NON)EMPLOYMENT AS DEPENDING UPON CHARACTISTICS OF HER HUSBAND BECAUSE OF DISINCENTIVES, A HUSBAND WITH A HIGHER EDUCATION (AND THEREFORE A HIGHER INCOME) MAKES FOR LESS EMPLOYMENT BECAUSE OF SUBCULTURAL NORMS, A HUSBAND WITH MORE EDUCATION MAKES FOR MORE EMPLOYMENT

12. THE STANDARD FINDING HERE IS THAT THE ECONOMIC EXPLANATION DOES NOT HAVE MUCH GOING FOR IT THE HIGHEST CHANCES FOR MARRIED WOMEN TO BE EMPLOYED ARE FOUND FOR WOMEN WITH THE HIGHEST EDUCATION MARRIED TO A MAN WITH THE HIGHEST EDUCATION THIS FINDING HINTS AT A NORM AMONG THE HIGHLY EDUCATED STIPULATING THAT A MARRIED WOMAN OUGHT TO WORK

13. FOR THE NETHERLANDS, BERNASCO ET AL, ESR 1998, SHOWED THAT, AFTER TAKING WOMEN’S EDUCATION INTO ACCOUNT, A HIGHER INCOME OF HUSBANDS MAKES FOR HIGHER CHANCES OF BECOMING NON- EMPLOYED AND LOWER CHANCES OF BECOMING EMPLOYED AND THAT, INDEPENDENT OF THIS, A HIGHER EDUCATION OF HUSBANDS MAKES FOR LOWER CHANCES OF BECOMING NON-EMPLOYED AND HIGHER CHANCES OF BECOMING EMPLOYED WITH THE POSITIVE EDUCATION EFFECT BEING LARGER THAN THE NEGATIVE INCOME EFFECT

15. (NON)EMPLOYMENT OF MARRIED WOMEN WITH CHILDREN IS NORM-GUIDED BEHAVIOUR WHOSE NORMS? THE NORMS OF HUSBANDS WITH A CERTAIN LEVEL OF EDUCATION? THE NORMS OF WIVES WITH A CERTAIN LEVEL OF EDUCATION? A WEIGHTED CHOICE BETWEEN THE NORMS OF BOTH HUSBANDS AND WIVES?

16. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW30 MIDDLE50 HIGH70 TOTAL THE REFERENCE POINTS ON THE MAIN DIAGONAL OF AN ARTIFICIAL TABLE

17. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW305070 MIDDLE305070 HIGH305070 TOTAL ONLY WIFE’S EDUCATION HAS EFFECTS: THE FEMALE INDEPENDENCE MODEL

18. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW304050 MIDDLE405060 HIGH506070 TOTAL THE EQUAL WEIGHT MODEL

19. SOBEL’S DIAGONAL REFERENCE MODELS ALLOW FOR UNEQUAL WEIGHTS THEY ARE CALLED DIAGONAL REFERENCE MODELS BECAUSE PREDICTIONS ARE NOT GENERATED FROM THE MARGINALS (AS IN ORDINARY LINEAR REGRESSION) BUT FROM THE MAIN DIAGONAL

21. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW 38 38 MIDDLE 67 HIGH85 TOTAL 62 JEWISH WOMEN, REFERENCE POINTS

22. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW385362 MIDDLE536772 HIGH627285 TOTAL JEWISH WOMEN, EQUAL WEIGHTS FOR OFF-DIAGONAL CELLS

23. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW 28 28 53 63 62 88 MIDDLE 53 57 28 28 72 85 HIGH 62 58 72 70 87 87 TOTAL JEWISH WOMEN, ACTUAL PERCENT IN OFF-DIAGONAL CELLS COMPARED

24. SO, WEIGHTS ARE NOT EQUAL AND THE WEIGHTS FOR CELLS ABOVE THE MAIN DIAGONAL DIFFER FROM CELLS BELOW THE MAIN DIAGONAL FOR JEWISH WOMEN, THE HIGHER A WIFE’S EDUCATION, THE WEAKER THE EFFECT OF HUSBAND’S EDUCATION: 38-57-58 63-67-70 88-85-85

26. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW 4 MIDDLE 28 HIGH87 TOTAL 15 MUSLIM WOMEN, REFERENCE POINTS

27. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW 41645 MIDDLE162857 HIGH455787 TOTAL MUSLIM WOMEN, EQUAL WEIGHTS FOR OFF-DIAGONAL CELLS

28. WIFE LOWMIDDLEHIGHTOTAL HUS- BAND LOW 4 16 27 45 68 MIDDLE 16 5 28 28 57 74 HIGH 45 12 57 42 87 87 TOTAL MUSLIM WOMEN, ACTUAL PERCENT IN OFF-DIAGONAL CELLS COMPARED

29. SO, WEIGHTS ARE NOT EQUAL AND THE WEIGHTS FOR CELLS ABOVE THE MAIN DIAGONAL DIFFER FROM CELLS BELOW THE MAIN DIAGONAL FOR MUSLIM WOMEN, THE HIGHER A WIFE’S EDUCATION, THE STRONGER THE EFFECT OF HUSBAND’S EDUCATION: 4-5-12 27-28-42 68-74-86

31. SUMMING UP: IN ISRAEL IN THE FIRST DECADE OF THE 21ST CENTURY FOR HIGHLY EDUCATED MARRIED JEWISH WOMEN WITH AT LEAST THREE CHILDREN, THE LABOUR MARKET CHANCES ARE SO GOOD THAT A POORLY EDUCATED HUSBAND DOES NOT PULL HER DOWN FOR LOWLY EDUCATED MARRIED MUSLIM WOMEN WITH AT LEAST THREE CHILDREN, THE LABOUR MARKET CHANCES ARE SO SMALL THAT A HIGHLY EDUCATED HUSBAND DOES NOT PULL HER UP