1. Research Design: Qualitative Methods

2. Objectives By the end of this session you will be able to: Identify the characteristics of qualitative data. Formulate qualitative research questions. Develop a robust qualitative design, including an appropriate sampling strategy. Select and apply the criteria that make for a rigorous qualitative research study.

3. Why qualitative? Some criticisms of quantitative methods Quantitative research can involve little or no contact with people or field settings. Statistical correlations may be based upon ‘variables’ that are arbitrarily defined by the researchers themselves. After-the-fact analysis about the meaning of correlations may involve some very common-sense reasoning or even speculation that science claims to avoid. The pursuit of ‘measurable’ phenomena mean that difficult concepts such as ‘criminality’ or ‘intelligence’ are treated unproblematically

4. Characteristics of qualitative research It is conducted through intense contact within a ‘field’ or real- life setting. The researcher’s role is to gain a ‘holistic’ or integrated overview of the study, including the perceptions of participants. Themes that emerge from the data are often reviewed with informants for verification. The main focus of research is to understand the ways in which people act and account for their actions.

5. Qualitative paradigms and perspectives Naturalistic: –Post-positivism –Realism Progressive: –Critical theory –Constructivism –Postmodernism –Feminism

6. Qualitative strategies of inquiry (1) Case study: Studies a specific ‘bounded system’, e.g. a person or institution. Ethnography: Explores the nature of a specific social phenomenon, often using a small number of cases. Ethnomethodology: Investigates people’s everyday procedures for creating and managing a sense of objective reality. Phenomenology: Explores how people’s taken for granted world is experienced and how structures of consciousness apprehend the world. Grounded theory: uses the interplay between analysis and data collection to produce theory.

7. Qualitative strategies of inquiry (2) Participatory action research: Implies an effort on the part of people to understand the role of knowledge as a significant instrument of power and control. Narrative analysis: The analysis of a chronologically told story, exploring how various elements are sequenced. Cultural studies: The study of a complex web of social customs, values and expectations that affect our ways of working Gender studies: Explores the process of constructing and differentiating gender and particularly gender inequalities.

8. Approaches to qualitative inquiry Determine the focus of the inquiry Formulate research questions Determine the unit of analysis Determine the types of data to be collected (words (interviews, diaries, field notes), photos, videos, etc.) Deciding on a sampling strategy Plan data analysis process

9. Volumes of data for inductive and deductive approaches

10. Sampling strategies (examples) Sampling strategyDescription Intensity samplingInformation-rich cases. Typical case samplingFocus on what is ‘normal’ or ‘average’ to highlight the whole population. Snowball samplingFirst group of participants nominates other individuals. Theory-based samplingCases are selected on the basis that they represent a theoretical construct.

11. Role of the researcher Maintain physical (emotional?) proximity to research participants. Demonstrate ‘theoretical sensitivity’. Be insightful. Perceive situations holistically. Be sensitive to personal bias (reflexivity).

12. The role of the literature The literature theoretical empirical methodological Data gathering Analysis Start? Role of the literature from a highly inductive approach – but you could also start with the literature.

13. Collecting qualitative data: interviewing Structured, semi- structured or conversational. Useful for follow-up, probing questions. If unstructured, can generate large amounts of data.

14. Collecting qualitative data: observation Data collected in ‘natural’ field settings. Can be overt or covert. Can involve participation by the researcher in the setting/event or non- participation.

15. Collecting qualitative data: using visual sources Can include photographs, film, video etc. Good for documenting peoples’ lifestyles, living and working conditions. But the focus of the camera can be selective. Subjects’ behaviour may change in front of the camera.

16. Collecting qualitative data: unobtrusive measures Includes documents (reports, business plans, contracts, etc.), websites and other ‘non-reactive’ data. Selective attrition of documents means there may be bias in the ones that survive.

17. Collecting qualitative data: research diaries The kinds of issues noted in a research diary could include: The processes involved in approaching the field and making contact (in the terms often used by participatory action research – ‘getting in’). Experiences (positive and negative) in getting access to respondents and in using data gathering instruments. Details of literature sources read (and ordered). Reflections on the interpretation and presentation of results, including important changes in direction.

18. Ethical checklist in qualitative research Have I honoured my commitments about confidentiality and privacy? Have I acted in the spirit of informed consent? Have I used my research effectively and morally? Have I generalized appropriately? Do I have a responsibility to anticipate how others might use my research and explanations?

19. Generating validity Type of techniqueTechnique Design considerationsDeveloping a self-conscious research design. Sampling decisions (i.e., sampling adequacy). Employing triangulation. Giving voice. Data generatingDemonstrating prolonged engagement in the field. Demonstrating persistent observation. Providing verbatim transcriptions. Demonstrating sampling and data saturation.

20. External validity – generalizing Replication through use of multiple cases (adapted from Flick, 2006)

21. But in generalizing, qualitative researchers need to be… Cautious, moderating the range of generalizing conclusions. Careful in recognizing the limitations of time periods. Meticulous in demonstrating clear linkages between generalizing conclusions and the specific data that provide its foundation. Honest and transparent about findings that contradict the conclusions. Diligent in reporting alternative explanations or the constraints on generalizations.

22. Designing for reliability Data triangulation, where data are gathered using multiple sampling strategies. Investigator triangulation, using more than one observer in field situations. Multiple triangulation, in which a combination of multiple methods, data types, observers and theories are combined. Methodological triangulation, of which there are two kinds: within-method, where the researcher employs varieties of data gathering techniques within the same method, and between method, where a variety of different methods are used.

23. But we could abandon conventional terms and seek instead… Transferability with purposive sampling to illustrate pertinent issues and factors when comparing two contexts for similarity; and thick descriptions to provide evidence for making judgements about similarities between cases. Dependability through the use of audit trails through the data. Confirmability, with the audit showing the connections between data and the researcher’s interpretations. Credibility, the use of persistent observations; triangulation (of data, methods, theories and investigations); member checks (where data and interpretations are tested with research participants).

24. Summary In qualitative research researchers are closer to the fields or settings they are trying to research – it is highly contextual. Qualitative research is not built upon a unified theory or methodological approach – hence its variety and flexibility. In qualitative research data analysis does not necessarily follow data gathering – there can be a number of iterations between the two. Even though there are various schools of qualitative research including grounded theory, ethnomethodology, narrative analysis and ethnography, they all have one element in common – generally, it is an inductive approach (although deduction or prior questions cannot be ruled out). Methods of collecting qualitative data include interview transcripts, field notes from observations, photographs, video and unobtrusive data. Decisions on whether to attempt generalization need to be built into the research design paying particular attention to sampling strategies. Qualitative approaches to achieving rigour include building trustworthiness, authenticity, creditability, transferability, dependability and confirmability.