1. The observational method and reproductive energetics of chimpanzees Research question: Do pregnant and lactating chimpanzees alter their feeding behavior to compensate for the increased energy demands of reproduction? (Murray et al. 2009) Hypothesis: Pregnant and lactating females will consume a diet that provides higher caloric intake than will nonpregnant, nonlactating females From Nordell and Valone, Animal Behavior: Concepts, Methods, and Applications, © 2014 by Oxford University Press Featured Research

2. The observational method and reproductive energetics of chimpanzees Methods: – Chimpanzees (Pan trogolodytes) – Classified adult females into three categories: pregnant (back-calculated from birth dates of offspring), lactating, or nonpregnant and nonlactating – Recorded the feeding behavior (types of foods eaten) of these females From Nordell and Valone, Animal Behavior: Concepts, Methods, and Applications, © 2014 by Oxford University Press Featured Research

3. The observational method and reproductive energetics of chimpanzees Results: – Females differ in the amount of fruit in their diet Conclusion: – Female chimpanzees appear to alter their diet to include more high- calorie fruit when pregnant and lactating to increase their caloric intake From Nordell and Valone, Animal Behavior: Concepts, Methods, and Applications, © 2014 by Oxford University Press Featured Research

4. From Nordell and Valone, Animal Behavior: Concepts, Methods, and Applications, © 2014 by Oxford University Press

6. Featured Research

7. Tinbergen’s four questions: Proximate questions about behavior – What mechanism caused the behavior? – How does the behavior develop? Ultimate questions about behavior – What is the function of the behavior? – How did the behavior evolve? From Nordell and Valone, Animal Behavior: Concepts, Methods, and Applications, © 2014 by Oxford University Press

8. Interdisciplinary approaches Evolutionary psychology – Seeks to understand human thinking and behavior and assumes that natural selection has shaped brain architecture and thought processes in an adaptive manner Cognitive ethology – Seeks to understand how natural selection acts on mental processes and cognition Behavioral ecology – Focuses on the ecology and evolution of behavior and its fitness consequences From Nordell and Valone, Animal Behavior: Concepts, Methods, and Applications, © 2014 by Oxford University Press

9. The three Rs Replacement – Encourages use of computer modeling, videotapes, or other approaches in place of actual research on animals in the laboratory Reduction – Promotes limiting the number of animals subject to disturbance in research or teaching Refinement – Involves improving procedures and techniques to minimize pain and stress for animals From Nordell and Valone, Animal Behavior: Concepts, Methods, and Applications, © 2014 by Oxford University Press