1. Introduction to Game Studies: Games in Culture Chapter 4: Dual Structure and the Action Games of the 1970s © Frans Mäyrä & SAGE Publications

2. Multi-Layered Meaning Making Behind their digital surface, many games are ‘remediated’ versions of old games. Digital information technology adds a specific layer of meaning to digital games. Each generation of digital games has been visually different from the previous - they demonstrate the powers of latest technology. Core gameplay is an embedded shell, which extends beyond games’ graphics to the significance of gaming hardware itself. This lesson involves playing two old games online.

3. Games at the Forefront of Computing Representatives of the games industry have emphasised the role of games in the evolution of computing. Non-keyboard interfaces, immersive alternative realities and anthropomorphic characters were introduced by games (Bushnell, 1996). Games demonstrate how computer software can be designed to be highly usable and enjoyable. According to this view, games lead the way into an information society where most people are ‘computer literate’.

4. Game ‘Classics’ The concept of ‘classic’ relates to a ‘standard of excellence’, which is referred to in discussions that compare, contextualise and make sense of different (artistic) phenomena. ‘Canon’ refers to a body of ‘great works’ that a civilised person is supposed to know. This textbook introduces a certain group of ‘classic games’ but many alternative ‘canons of digital games’ can be created.

5. Three Decades of Digital Games The focus is on three decades: 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. There is no agreement of the exact periods in games’ historiography. The ‘golden age of video games’ can, in different sources, refer to e.g. the years 1978–1981, 1978–1985, 1971–1983 or 1971–1984. The early period is generally seen as more influential, original and important for game development than the years from late-1980s onwards.

6. Games in the Information Society Several thinkers have written about transition into an ‘information society’, where the main emphasis is on knowledge and information in various forms. The instability of the games industry has displayed the risks of an information economy. History includes the video game crash of 1977, then 1983, and the ‘dot-com crash’ of 2000- 2002. Despite this, the trend appears to be moving towards ‘experience economy’ or ‘media society’.

7. 1970s: Learning the Lexicon The 1970s introduced the first video games, both in arcades and into homes. 1970s’ digital games can appear primitive by modern standards. The earliest digital games relied on experiences people had from other games. Growing gradually more complex, the early games introduced players with the evolving ‘grammar and lexicon’ (sets of key conventions) of gaming.

8. PONG (1972): Popular and Simple Watch video of original arcade PONG gameplay: http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=LPkUvfL8T1I&NR=1 http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=LPkUvfL8T1I&NR=1 Play a simple, single-player version of PONG: http://www.corporatedump.com/oldpong.html http://www.corporatedump.com/oldpong.html More PONG remakes: http://www.pong-story.com/pcpong.htmhttp://www.pong-story.com/pcpong.htm Image credits: Wikipedia; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pong.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pong.png

9. Secrets of PONG The core gameplay idea is already widely familiar from tennis, squash and other similar, physical games. Players know immediately what to do. The single, turn-knob controller is easy to handle, but hard to master. The on-screen PONG paddle was divided into eight segments, so that hitting the ball with the edges would produce angle shots. As a two-player game against a real person as an opponent, PONG would provide infinite variety in its gameplay.

10. History of Gaming Devices The physical and electronic characteristics of gaming devices matter considerably for most gamers. The earliest digital games were often created with ‘mainframe’ computers in research laboratories and universities. Four main routes of mainstream game evolution:  arcade gaming consoles (‘arcade video games’)  home video game consoles (‘video games’)  home computers (‘computer games’)  handheld consoles (‘electronic games’).

11. There have been many kinds of special controllers developed for digital play. Sometimes a good controller has provided a particular system with the necessary competitive edge. Evolution of Controllers Above Atari VSC/Atari 2600 (1977); below, Nintendo Famicom/NES (1983) Image credits: Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.orgwww.wikipedia.org

12. Shooter Game: Space Invaders (1978) Shooting galleries were popular as fairground attractions. Different kinds of digital ‘shooters’ have become one of the most popular kinds of action games. Space Invaders by Japanese Taito appeared as a “mixture between pinball and a Marvel comic”. (Sellers, 2001) Introduced ‘high score’ which contributed to the social playability of the game. Image credits: The International Arcade Museum, www.klov.com; The History of Computing Project, www.thocp.netwww.klov.comwww.thocp.net

13. Play Space Invaders There are various Space Invaders clones available for online play Test one of these:  http://robotubegames.com/play_game.php?gameid=28 (select ‘Play Invaders 1978’) http://robotubegames.com/play_game.php?gameid=28  http://www.spaceinvaders.de/ http://www.spaceinvaders.de/ For original arcade game emulation issues, see: http://www.ascotti.org/programming/side/side.ht m and http://www.mame.net/ http://www.ascotti.org/programming/side/side.ht mhttp://www.mame.net/

14. Establishing Game Genres Simultaneous navigation and shooting is a test of accuracy and hand-eye coordination skills. This style of core gameplay was one of the earliest conventions to become established in digital games. Game genres were based on groups of conventions related to e.g. interaction available for the players and to the game screen elements (the ‘interface’) and game controllers. Important for the grammar and syntax of digital games (gameplay lexicon) to develop further.

15. Assignments Alternative games history:  collect and document your own version of a ‘canon’ for the history of digital games. Gameplay experience of a ‘classic game’:  what kind of gameplay experiences do so-called ‘classic games’ (early popular digital games) provide for a modern player? Play a 1970s’ game for at least two hours and provide a critical account of your observations.