2. Chapter Eighteen: Energy and Reactions
18.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions
18.2 Chemical Reaction Systems
18.3 Nuclear Reactions

3. 18.2 Chemical Reaction Systems
A balanced chemical equation is like a recipe.
If you write the equation for making chocolate cake, you will see it is similar to a real recipe for making water.

4. 18.2 Chemical Reaction Systems

5. 18.2 Information from Balanced Chemical Equations
If the recipe for chocolate cake gives you ratios among the ingredients needed to make eight servings, how many servings are possible if you only have half a cup of flour?

6. 18.2 Information from Balanced Chemical Equations
To make a good-tasting chocolate cake with half as much flour, you would have to use half as much of the other ingredients, too.
By halving the recipe, you can make four servings of chocolate cake.

7. 18.2 Information from Balanced Chemical Equations
A balanced chemical equation shows the ratios of the number of molecules of reactants needed to make a certain number of molecules of products using coefficients.

8. 18.2 What a balanced equation doesn’t tell you
A balanced equation does not describe the exact conditions under which a reaction will occur.
The right conditions for most of the reactions that are used in science and industry are the result of careful research and experimentation.

9. 18.2 Limiting and Excess Reactants
When a chemical reaction occurs, the reactants are not always present in the exact ratio indicated by the balanced equation.
What usually happens is that a chemical reaction will run until the reactant that is in short supply is used up.

10. 18.2 Limiting and Excess Reactants
The reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction is called the limiting reactant.
The limiting reactant limits the amount of product that can be formed.
Which reactant will be used up first?

11. 18.2 Limiting and Excess Reactants
A reactant that is not completely used up is called an excess reactant because some of it will be left over when the reaction is complete.
Which reactant will be left over (mixed with) product?

12. 18.2 Percent Yield
Often the amount of product you are able to collect and measure is less than the amount you would expect.
Experimental error often affects how much product is produced.

13. 18.2 Percent Yield
The percent yield (%) is the actual yield divided by the predicted yield and then multiplied by one hundred.

14. Solving Problems
Aspirin can be made in the laboratory through a series of reactions.
If the actual yield for aspirin was grams when the reactions were performed, and the predicted yield was 500 grams, what was the percent yield?

15. Solving Problems Looking for: Given Relationships: Solution
…percent yield of reaction
Given
Actual yield = g
Predicted yield = g
Relationships:
percent yield = actual yield × 100%
predicted yield
Solution
percent yield = (461.5 g ÷ g) × 100 = 92.3%

16. 18.2 Reaction Rates
In all phases of matter, atoms and molecules exhibit random motion.
This concept is part of the kinetic theory of matter.
The speed at which atoms or molecules move depends on the state of matter and temperature.

17. 18.2 Reaction Rates
The reaction rate for a chemical reaction is the change in concentration of reactants or products over time.
Reaction rates can be increased by:
adding heat to increase molecular motion
increasing the concentration of the reactants
increasing the chances that two molecules will collide.

18. 18.2 Catalysts
A catalyst is a molecule that can be added to a reaction to speed it up.
Catalysts work by increasing the chances that two molecules will be positioned in the right way for a reaction to occur.

19. 18.2 Chemical equilibrium
A reaction may reach chemical equilibrium, the state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction.
In chemical equilibrium, the reaction can proceed both left and right simultaneously.

20. 18.2 Chemical vs. Nuclear Reactions
For complex reasons, the nucleus of an atom becomes unstable if it contains too many or too few neutrons relative to the number of protons.
The forces inside the atom result in it breaking apart or releasing particles.

21. Radioactive Decay
This process of radioactive decay results in an unstable, radioactive isotope like carbon-14 becoming the more stable isotope nitrogen-14.

22. Radioactive Decay There are three types of radioactive decay:
alpha decay,
beta decay, and
gamma decay.

23. Two types of Nuclear Reactions
There are two kinds of nuclear reactions: fusion and fission.
Nuclear fusion is the process of combining the nuclei of lighter atoms to make heavier atoms.