1. Sociology of Scientific Knowledge week 5 Economic Methodology

2. From observation to scientific fact Objective connotation Subjective connotation Intersubjective connotation

3. Richard Butler’s Triangle of Relationships in Social Inquiry

4. Investigation of... Eureka! Context of DiscoveryContext of Justification Research results

5. The sociological shift Traditional philosophy of science focuses on the rules of proper scientific method and such things as logic, truth, role of assumptions, use of evidence, etc. that influence acceptance and rejection of theories Sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) puts all of this aside, and focuses on the sociological behavior of scientists in terms of their motives and interests as members of communities of scientists to understand their acceptance or rejection of theories

6. Kuhn’s influence The implication of Kuhn’s work is that scientists make decisions about science for reasons they are unaware of There is a disconnect between what they believe and the reasons for their beliefs Before Kuhn it was believed social factors influenced the conditions under science was practiced, but did not influence the content of science Kuhn’s emphasis on ‘world views’ changes this

7. Robert Merton The Sociology of Science (1973) Focus is the social or cultural preconditions for empirical science These values traceable to values of ascetic Protestantism of 17 th century Europe

8. 4 defining norms of science (CUDOS) Communism (= communalism) the common ownership of scientific discoveries, according to which scientists give up intellectual property rights in exchange for recognition and esteem Disinterestedness according to which scientists are rewarded for acting in ways that outwardly appear to be selfless Universalism according to which claims to truth are evaluated in terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on the basis of race, class, gender, religion, or nationality Organized skepticism all ideas must be tested and are subject to rigorous, structured community scrutiny

9. Naturalistic Turn Investigation of practice itself Positive Philosophy Scientific practice is investigated like nature is investigated by scientists

10. The Edinburgh School ‘strong programme’ Starting point is a ‘naturalistic’ approach to scientific knowledge; scientists are to be investigated just as we would any other natural phenomena

11. 4 principles Causality: it examines the conditions (psychological, social, and cultural) that bring about claims to a certain kind of knowledge. Impartiality: it examines successful as well as unsuccessful knowledge claims. Symmetry: the same types of explanations are used for successful and unsuccessful knowledge claims alike. Reflexivity: it must be applicable to sociology itself.

12. The Edinburgh School ‘strong programme’ One specific approach to explaining scientific beliefs: beliefs are explained in terms of the social interests of scientists Scientists’ social interests are based on their particular place in the overall pattern of social relationships: personal, group, professional, class, national, etc. Empirical in orientation; knowledge is what scientists take it to be, not what philosophers say it is

13. Bruno Latour (with Steve Woolgar) Laboratory Life: The (Social) Construction of Scientific Facts (1979) Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society (1987)

14. Opening Pandora's Black Box Left face: ready-made science Right face: science in the making

15. Laboratory studies approach Focus: the daily practices of scientists in their laboratories or worksites and how their theories reflect their nature of their practical activity An ethnographical approach Micro-social in emphasis, and based on case studies Social constructionist perspective: – explanations are highly detailed and contextual, and so are ‘constructed’ around what gets emphasis – the world is a consequence rather than a cause of science, and nature has little to do with science

16. Philosophical problems: relativism Epistemological relativism: ‘truth’ and ‘knowledge’ are relative to specific societies and historical circumstances Empirical foundationalism: scientific laws based on evidence have ‘incorrigible’ foundations Theory-ladenness of observations: theories can never be tested by evidence because evidence presupposes those theories Is theory always relative to context and history?

17. Economics and SSK Economics of science (ES): study of economic factors that influence the conditions under which science is practiced, but which do not influence the content of science; called the ‘old’ economics of science Economics of scientific knowledge (ESK): the application of economic models to the determination of scientists’ beliefs; called the ‘new’ economics of science

18. ES: Science policy Application of the standard tools of welfare economics, externalities, and public goods to determine the optimal level of scientific research Two views of basic scientific research: – creates positive externalities and underproduced in competitive markets – is a pure public good Recommended policy: – Government should subsidize basic scientific research – Patents/property rights allow recovery of positive spillovers

19. ESK: The Dasgupta and David model ‘open science’: a system of social organization which makes scientific results available as quickly as possible openness is incentive-compatible with a reward system based on self-interest – Rewards depend on priority of discoveries – Discoveries must be made public to provide credit – Credit only for reliable and sound discoveries – Compensation should favor competition winner

20. ESK: Kitcher Social epistemology: science is organized socially, so scientific standards are social ones Goal: increase the ratio of reliable beliefs to total beliefs in the population Means: arrange social institutions in most epistemically efficient way possible Principle: knowledge is promoted by cognitive diversity, or through competition Model: industrial organization of cognitive labor

21. SSK and ESK Sociological approaches rather than psychological approaches What are the psychological mechanisms that influence beliefs and scientists’ interaction? What are the forms of communication between scientists? How do scientists influence one another?