1. Wageningen IMARES Wageningen IMARES is een samenwerkingsverband tussen Wageningen UR en TNO The role shellfish in the socio- cultural history of Europe Jeroen Wijsman

2. Wageningen IMARES Kitchen midden sites (køkkenmødding) Kitchen midden sites in Jutland (Denmark) Neolithic man, 5000 years ago Due to shortage of meat people started to eat shellfish (oysters, cockles)

3. Wageningen IMARES Aphrodite: Goddess of love Born out of the sea Spawned by a King Scallop Oysters are natural aphrodisiac High level of zinc that is required for production of testosterone

4. Wageningen IMARES Roman period Lucullus organized massive oyster orgies > 100 oyster per person was normal Agrippa (63 BC -12 BC), imported English oysters that were harvested at the coast of Kent to Rome (Rutupians) Roman, Sergius Orata invented the first oyster culture system. Imported oysters from Brindisi were fattened before selling in Rome Lucius Licinius Lucullus (110 BC – 56 BC)

5. Wageningen IMARES Plinius (23-79 AD) Oysters are a delicacy Medicinally characteristics Appetizer Laxative against head cold Reputed for its powers as an aphrodisiac

6. Wageningen IMARES Golden ages (17 th century) Oysters were the symbol of the incarnation of an aphrodisiac

7. Wageningen IMARES The oyster-eater, Jan Steen (1658)

8. Wageningen IMARES Like the old sang, Jan Steen (1665)

9. Wageningen IMARES Tweeërlei spel, Jan Steen (1679)

10. Wageningen IMARES The oystermeal, Frans van Mieris de Oude (1661)

11. Wageningen IMARES Still Life with Oysters, Lemons and Grapes (Cornelis de Heem, 1760)

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14. Oyster culture in France Wild fishery on native oysters (Ostrea edulis) through Middle Ages Culture of Ostrea edulis in former salt ponds in Marennes region 17 th century

15. Wageningen IMARES Fattening of oysters in old salt ponds

16. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in France Overexploitation in 18 th century 1750 regulation enforced to restrict fishing during breeding season 18 th century collection of spat with limed tiles Import of cupped oysters (Crassostrea angulata) from Portugal

17. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in France Heral (1989)

18. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture France Seed supply Natural spatfall, using various types of spat collectors Hatcheries Growing stage On-bottom culture: Intertidal (predation control with fences), subtidal Off-bottom culture: Rack culture at intertidal Fattening in old salt ponds “fines de claires” one month 20 m -2 “speciales de claire” two months 10 m -2

19. Wageningen IMARES Mussel culture in France Extensive fishery until 19 th century Local overfishing 1235 “Bouchot” culture Patrick Walton L’Aiguillon Bay Bottom culture Long lines

20. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in the Netherlands Early 18 th century flat oysters collected by hand and with rakes and dredged in Wadden Sea and Zeeland 1714 import of seed oysters from Denmark reported  Variable stock size (freezing, ice, cold summers) Fishermen held their catch on private “oyster banks”, to be fattened till the season

21. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in the Netherlands After 1850 decline in landings due to overfishing, failing recruitment and habitat loss, especially in Wadden Sea  poverty among fishermen Restocking experiments with imports from Denmark, England and Scotland Zeeland became the hart of the Dutch oyster culture

22. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in the Netherlands Seed collection with limed tiles

23. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in the Netherlands In the winter, tiles with spat were brought to oysterponds

24. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in the Netherlands Oysters are stored in ponds in Yerseke

25. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in the Netherlands Sorting of oysters by hand

26. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in the Netherlands 1962/1963 severe winter caused mass mortality in Oosterschelde, more than 90% of the oyster companies stopped their business (1) 1979 introduction Bonamia ostrea in Oosterschelde (2) 1989 B. ostrea in Lake Grevelingen (3) 1 2 3 Flat oysters 1952 - 2003

27. Wageningen IMARES Oyster culture in the Netherlands Introduction of Pacific oysters from British Columbia at experimental scale (1964) At present Pacific oyster culture in Oosterschelde and Lake Grevelingen

28. Wageningen IMARES Mussel culture in the Netherlands Wild fishery of mussels 15 th century mussels were stored for later use at plots 1870: culture plots were leased out End for small fishermen 1917 shortage of food in war zones: export of cooked and canned mussels Market in Brussels and Antwerp 1950 Myticola intestinalis in Delta waters Fishery and culture plots in Wadden Sea

29. Wageningen IMARES Dutch mussel culture: mainly bottom culture Seed fishery

30. Wageningen IMARES Mussel culture: seed translocated to culture plots Culture plots Auction Yerseke

31. Wageningen IMARES Mussel culture in the Netherlands Extensive culture. Fishery in Wadden Sea conflicts with nature conservation organizations early 1990’s Intertidal mussel beds disappeared Fishery intertidal areas forbidden Reservation of mussels and cockles for birds Quotation seed fishery

32. Wageningen IMARES Mussel culture in the Netherlands Innovation in culture techniques Mussel seed capture Hatcheries Culture on land

33. Wageningen IMARES Shellfish aquaculture communities Small villages Closed religious communities Family companies with long history Important role in local economy Touristic attraction Local delicacies

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36. Conclusions Shellfish and shellfish culture have a long history in Europe From 2 nd choice food and poor man’s food to a delicacy From fishery in wild to culture Extensive culture, depending on nature and influencing nature Long tradition and valued for its long tradition

37. Wageningen IMARES Wageningen IMARES is een samenwerkingsverband tussen Wageningen UR en TNO Thanks for your attention!!! © Wageningen UR