2. 2: Scholarly Communications System

3. Pre-modern academy Shangyang “Higher School” – Yu period ~2250 BCE Imperial Central School – Zhou dynasty ~1050-249 Plato’s Academy (founded 428 BCE) Aristotle’s Lyceum 335 BCE Library of Alexandria 300-30 BCE Reverence for “scholarly knowledge” universal-local

4. Nalanda, Bihar, India ~427 to 1197

5. Nanking University

6. Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt, 988

7. Timbuktu

8. Modern university Late medieval->Early Enlightenment->Late Enlightenment University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, 1088 University of Paris, Paris, France, founded c. 1150 University of Oxford, Oxford, England, before 1167 University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England, c. 1209 University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain, 1218 Ruprecht Karls University of Heidelberg, Germany, 1386 University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany, 1409 University of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey, 1453

9. (1660)

10. Académie des Sciences (1666)