1. Note that the following lectures include animations and PowerPoint effects such as fly-ins and transitions that require you to be in PowerPoint's Slide Show mode (presentation mode).

2. Neutron Stars and Black Holes Chapter 14

3. In the last two chapters you have traced the story of stars from birth to death. By now you are asking a simple question, “What’s left?” The answer depends on the mass of the star. You already know that stars like the sun produce white dwarf corpses, but more massive stars leave behind the strangest beasts in the cosmic zoo. Now you are ready to meet neutron stars and black holes, and your exploration will answer four essential questions: How does theory predict the existence of neutron stars? How do astronomers know neutron stars really exist? How does theory predict the existence of black holes? How can astronomers be sure that black holes really exist? Guidepost

4. This chapter will show you more striking examples of how astronomers combine observations and theory to understand nature. This chapter ends the story of individual stars, but it does not end the story of stars. In the next chapter, you will begin exploring the giant communities in which stars live – the galaxies. Guidepost

5. I. Neutron Stars A. Theoretical Prediction of Neutron Stars B. The Discovery of Pulsars C. A Model Pulsar D. The Evolution of Pulsars E. Binary Pulsars F. The Fastest Pulsars G. Pulsar Planets II. Black Holes A. Escape Velocity B. Schwarzschild Black Holes C. Leaping into a Black Hole D. The Search for Black Holes Outline

6. III. Compact Objects with Disks and Jets A. Jets of Energy from Compact Objects B. Gamma-Ray Bursts Outline (continued)

7. Formation of Neutron Stars Compact objects more massive than the Chandrasekhar Limit (1.4 M sun ) collapse beyond the formation of a white dwarf.  Pressure becomes so high that electrons and protons combine to form stable neutrons throughout the object: p + e -  n + e  Neutron Star A supernova explosion of a M > 8 M sun star blows away its outer layers. The central core will collapse into a compact object of ~ a few M sun.

8. Properties of Neutron Stars Typical size: R ~ 10 km Mass: M ~ 1.4 – 3 M sun Density:  ~ 10 14 g/cm 3  a piece of neutron star matter of the size of a sugar cube has a mass of ~ 100 million tons!!! A neutron star (more than the mass of the sun) would comfortably fit within the Capital Beltway!

9. Discovery of Pulsars => Collapsing stellar core spins up to periods of ~ a few milliseconds. Angular momentum conservation => Rapidly pulsed (optical and radio) emission from some objects interpreted as spin period of neutron stars Magnetic fields are amplified up to B ~ 10 9 – 10 15 G. (up to 10 12 times the average magnetic field of the sun)

10. Pulsars / Neutron Stars Wien’s displacement law,  max = 3,000,000 nm / T[K] gives a maximum wavelength of max = 3 nm, which corresponds to X-rays. Neutron star surface has a temperature of ~ 1 million K.

11. Pulsar Winds These winds carry away about 99.9 % of the energy released from the slowing-down of the pulsar’s rotation. Pulsars are emitting winds and jets of highly energetic particles.

12. Lighthouse Model of Pulsars A Pulsar’s magnetic field has a dipole structure, just like Earth. Radiation is emitted mostly along the magnetic poles.

13. Images of Pulsars and Other Neutron Stars The Vela Pulsar moving through interstellar space The Crab nebula and pulsar

14. The Crab Pulsar Remnant of a supernova observed in A.D. 1054 Pulsar wind + jets

15. The Crab Pulsar (2) Visual image X-ray image

16. Light curves of the Crab Pulsar Pulsar pulse shapes can be quite different in different wavelength ranges (e.g., optical vs. X-rays).

17. Proper Motion of Neutron Stars Some neutron stars are moving rapidly through interstellar space. This might be a result of anisotropies during the supernova explosion, forming the neutron star.

18. Binary Pulsars Some pulsars form binaries with other neutron stars (or black holes). Radial velocities resulting from the orbital motion lengthen the pulsar period when the pulsar is moving away from Earth... …and shorten the pulsar period when it is approaching Earth.

19. Neutron Stars in Binary Systems: X-ray Binaries Example: Her X-1 2 M sun (F-type) star Neutron star Accretion disk material heats to several million K => X-ray emission Star eclipses neutron star and accretion disk periodically Orbital period = 1.7 days

20. Neutron Stars in Binary Systems: X-ray Binaries (2) Example: Her X-1 Neutron-star X-ray binaries are often found in star clusters where stars are crowded close together.

21. Pulsar Planets Some pulsars have planets orbiting around them. Just like in binary pulsars, this can be discovered through variations of the pulsar period. As the planets orbit around the pulsar, they cause it to wobble around, resulting in slight changes of the observed pulsar period.

22. Black Holes Just like white dwarfs (Chandrasekhar limit: 1.4 M sun ), there is a mass limit for neutron stars: Neutron stars can not exist with masses > 3 M sun We know of no mechanism to halt the collapse of a compact object with > 3 M sun. It will collapse into a single point – a singularity: => A Black Hole!

23. Escape Velocity Velocity needed to escape Earth’s gravity from the surface: v esc ≈ 11.6 km/s v esc Now, gravitational force decreases with distance (~ 1/d 2 ) => Starting out high above the surface => lower escape velocity v esc If you could compress Earth to a smaller radius => higher escape velocity from the surface

24. The Schwarzschild Radius => There is a limiting radius where the escape velocity reaches the speed of light, c: V esc = c R s = 2GM____ c2c2 R s is called the Schwarzschild Radius. G = Universal const. of gravity M = Mass

25. Schwarzschild Radius and Event Horizon No object can travel faster than the speed of light. We have no way of finding out what’s happening inside the Schwarzschild radius. => Nothing (not even light) can escape from inside the Schwarzschild radius.  “Event horizon”

26. Schwarzschild Radii

27. General Relativity Effects Near Black Holes (1) At a distance, the gravitational fields of a black hole and a star of the same mass are virtually identical. At small distances, the much deeper gravitational potential will become noticeable.

28. General Relativity Effects Near Black Holes (2) An astronaut descending down towards the event horizon of the BH will be stretched vertically (tidal effects) and squeezed laterally. This effect is called “spaghettification.”

29. General Relativity Effects Near Black Holes (3) Time dilation Event Horizon Clocks starting at 12:00 at each point After 3 hours (for an observer far away from the BH): Clocks closer to the BH run more slowly. Time dilation becomes infinite at the event horizon.

30. General Relativity Effects Near Black Holes (4) Gravitational Red Shift Event Horizon All wavelengths of emissions from near the event horizon are stretched (red shifted).  Frequencies are lowered

31. Observing Black Holes No light can escape a black hole. => Black holes can not be observed directly. If an invisible compact object is part of a binary, we can estimate its mass from the orbital period and radial velocity. Mass > 3 M sun => Black hole!

32. Candidates for Black Hole Compact object with > 3 M sun must be a black hole!

33. Black-Hole vs. Neutron-Star Binaries Black Holes: Accreted matter disappears beyond the event horizon without a trace. Neutron Stars: Accreted matter produces an X-ray flash as it impacts on the neutron star surface.

34. Black Hole X-Ray Binaries Strong X-ray sources Rapidly, erratically variable (with flickering on time scales of less than a second) Sometimes: Quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) Sometimes: Radio-emitting jets Accretion disks around black holes

35. Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) Short (~ a few s), bright bursts of gamma-rays Later discovered with X-ray and optical afterglows lasting several hours – a few days GRB a few hours after the GRB Same field, 13 years earlier Many have now been associated with host galaxies at large (cosmological) distances.

36. A model for Gamma-Ray Bursts At least some GRBs are probably related to the deaths of very massive (> 25 M sun ) stars. In a supernova-like explosion of stars this massive, the core might collapse not to a neutron star, but directly to a black hole. Such stellar explosions are termed “hypernovae”.

37. Magnetars Some neutron stars have magnetic fields ~ 1000 times stronger even than normal neutron stars. These care called Magnetars. Earthquake-like ruptures in the surface crust of Magnetars cause bursts of soft gamma-rays.