1. Gender and Language Little study of women’s speech until 1970s Lakoff: Genderlects women’s speech seen as powerless Studies of sex differences in speech

2. Studies of sex differences At first, just added sex as variable Inconclusive results not clear-cut differences by sex if statistical difference, reason not clear Form alone (e.g. tag question) not enough; need to consider meaning— e.g., modal and (softening or facilitative) affective tags;

3. Findings consistent with stereotypes accepted, inconsistent explained away Not useful to treat all women as though alike Need to consider gender in relation to setting and other social categories

4. Gender and Speech (approaches) Gender Differences=Deficit Gender Differences are sub-cultural Gender Differences reflect dominance

5. Gender Bias in English All people male until proven female. Most occupational titles male. Female doctor, female pilot Acting is masculine passively accepting is female

6. Semantic derogation PatronMatron LandlordLandlady SirMadam GovernorGoverness CourtierCourtesan

7. LordDame GentlemanLady MasterMistress

8. Bias towards women Innocent term describing women becomes negative, then abusive, then a sexual slur. More than 500 English words for prostitute.

9. Gender and Speech Gender is a social construct Do gender through activity, in interaction with others Do gender in part through speech Gender as performed

10. Performative Postmoderns Gal: Cultural constructions of language behavior not just ideas that differentiate genders in terms of social interaction but are themselves sources of power that are enacted and contested in talk.