1. Blackbody Radiation: The light from a blackbody is light that comes solely from the object itself rather than being reflected from some other source. A good way of making a blackbody is to force reflected light to make lots of reflections: inside a bottle with a small opening. [Even if light loses only 5% on each reflection, after 25 reflections the light is down to 28% of its original intensity.]

2. Blackbody Radiation: Experimental Results At 310 Kelvin, only get IR Intensity wavelength UV IRblue yellow red

3. Blackbody Radiation: Experimental Results At much higher temperatures, get visible look at blue/red ratio to get temperature Intensity wavelength UV IRblue yellow red

4. Blackbody Radiation: Experimental Results P total =  AT 4 where  = 5.67 x 10 -8 W/m 2 *K 4  peak = b/T where b = 2.9 x 10 -3 m*K Intensity wavelength UV IRblue yellow red

5. Blackbody Radiation: Wave Theory The standing wave theory and the equipartition of energy theory together predict that the intensity of light should increase with decreasing wavelength: This work very well at long wavelengths, but fails at short wavelengths. This failure at short wavelengths is called the ultraviolet catastrophe.

6. Blackbody Radiation: Wave Theory wave theory: UV catastrophe intensity wavelength experiment

7. Blackbody Radiation: Planck’s idea Planck used the wave idea of standing waves and introduced  E = hf, the idea of light coming in discrete packets (or photons) rather than continuously as the wave theory predicted.

8. How to Make Light The wave theory combined with the equipartition of energy theory failed to explain blackbody radiation. Planck kept the wave idea of standing waves but introduced  E = hf, the idea of light coming in discrete packets (or photons) rather than continuously as the wave theory predicted.

9. How to Make Light From this theory we now have a way of relating the photon idea to color and type:  E = hf. –Note that high frequency (small wavelength) light has high photon energy, and that low frequency (large wavelength) light has low photon energy.

10. How to Make Light  E = hf High frequency light tends to be more dangerous than low frequency light (UV versus IR, x-ray versus radio). The photon theory gives a good account of why the frequency of the light makes a difference in the danger. Individual photons cannot break bonds if their energy is too low while big photons can!

11. Photons and Colors Electron volts are useful size units of energy 1 eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 Coul * 1V = 1.6 x 10 -19 J. radio photon: hf = 6.63 x 10 -34 J*s * 1 x 10 6 /s = 6.63 x 10 -28 J = 4 x 10 -9 eV red photon: f = c/  3 x 10 8 m/s / 7 x 10 -7 m = 4.3 x 10 14 Hz, red photon energy = 1.78 eV blue:  = 400 nm; photon energy = 3.11 eV.

12. Power and photons Example How many photons are emitted every second from one watt of yellow light? Power = Energy / time = Energy per photon * number of photons / time = hf * n/sec; f =c, so f = c/ Power = (hc/ ) * n/sec P = 1 Watt = (6.63 x 10 -34 J-s * 3 x 10 8 m/s / 5.5 x 10 -7 m) * n/sec; n/sec = 2.8 x 10 18 photons per second.

13. Making and Absorbing Light The photon theory with  E = hf was useful in explaining the blackbody radiation. Is it useful in explaining other experiments? We’ll consider next the photoelectric effect.

14. Photoelectric Effect Light hits a metal plate, and electrons are ejected. These electrons are collected in the circuit and form a current. A light + - V ejected electron

15. Photoelectric Effect The following graphs illustrate what the wave theory predicts will happen: I current I light intensity I current Voltage I current frequency of light

16. Photoelectric Effect We now show in blue what actually happens: I current I light intensity I current Voltage I current frequency of light V-stop f-co

17. Photoelectric Effect In addition, we see a connect between V-stop and f above f cutoff : V-stop frequency f cutoff

18. Photoelectric Effect Einstein received the Nobel Prize for his explanation of this. (He did NOT receive the prize for his theory of relativity.)

19. Photoelectric Effect Einstein suggested that light consisted of discrete units of energy,  E = hf. Electrons could either get hit with and absorb a whole photon, or they could not. There was no in-between (getting part of a photon). If the energy of the unit of light (photon) was not large enough to let the electron escape from the metal, no electrons would be ejected. (Hence, the existence of f-cutoff.)

20. Photoelectric Effect If the photon energy were large enough to eject the electron from the metal (here, W is the energy necessary to eject the electron), then the following equation would apply: hf = W + KE The Energy of the photon absorbed (hf) goes into ejecting the electron (W) plus any extra energy left over which would show up as kinetic energy (KE).

21. Photoelectric Effect This extra kinetic energy (KE) would allow the electron to climb up a “hill”, but the size of the hill that the electron could climb up would be limited to the extra kinetic energy the electron had. By measuring the highest hill, we could arrive at the extra energy of the electron. Hill sizes in electrical terms are in VOLTS: KE = PE = qV stop.

22. Photoelectric Effect Put into a nice equation: hf = W + e*V stop –where f is the frequency of the light –W is the “WORK FUNCTION”, or the amount of energy needed to get the electron out of the metal –V stop is the stopping potential When V stop = 0, f = f cutoff, and hf cutoff = W.

23. Photoelectric Effect - Example Most metals have a work function on the order of several electron volts. Copper has a work function of 4.5 eV. Therefore, the cut-off frequency for light ejecting electrons from copper is: hf cutoff = 4.5 eV, or f cutoff = 4.5 x (1.6 x 10 -19 C) x (1 V) / 6.63 x 10 -34 J-sec = 1.09 x 10 15 Hz,

24. Photoelectric Effect - Example or cutoff = c/ f cutoff, or cutoff = (3 x 10 8 m/s) / (1.09 x 10 15 cycles/sec) = 276 nm (in the UV range) Any frequency lower than the cut-off (or any wavelength greater than the cut-off value) will NOT eject electrons from the metal.

25. Photoelectric Effect From Einstein’s equation: hf = W + e*V stop, we can see that the straight line of the V stop vs f graph should have a slope of (h/e). This gives a second way of determining the value of h. [The first was from fitting the blackbody curve.] When we do this, we get the same value for h that Planck did: 6.63 x 10 -34 Joule*sec.

26. Compton Scattering When light encounters charged particles, the particles will interact with the light and cause some of the light to be scattered. light wave electron motion of electron incident photon electron scattered photon motion of electron after hit

27. Compton Scattering From the wave theory, we can understand that charged particles would interact with the light since the light is an electromagnetic wave!

28. Compton Scattering But the actual predictions of how the light scatters from the charged particles does not fit our simple wave model. If we consider the photon idea of light, some of the photons would “hit” the charged particles and “bounce off”. The laws of conservation of energy and momentum should then predict the scattering.

29. Compton Scattering As we will see in part five of the course, photons DO HAVE MOMENTUM as well as energy. The scattered photons will have less energy and less momentum after collision with electrons, and so should have a larger wavelength according to the formula:  = scattered - incident = (h/mc)[1-cos(  )]

30. Compton Scattering  = scattered - incident = (h/mc)[1-cos(  )] Note that Planck’s constant is in this relation as well, and gives a further experimental way of getting this value. Again, the photon theory provides a nice explanation of a phenomenon involving light.

31. Compton Scattering  = scattered - incident = (h/mc)[1-cos(  )] Note that the maximum change in wavelength is (for scattering from an electron) 2h/mc = 2(6.63 x 10 -34 J-s) / (9.1 x 10 -31 kg * 3 x 10 8 m/s) = 4.86 x 10 -12 m which would be insignificant for visible light but NOT for x-ray and  -ray light.