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Chapter Sixteen
Social Psychology
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2. Social Psychology
Study of how others influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions
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3. Our thoughts about others
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Attributions
Attribution How we explain our own and others’ actions
Mistaken Attributions Fundamental attribution error (FAE) Self-serving bias
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5. Fundamental Attribution Error
Attributing people’s behavior to internal (dispositional) causes rather than external (situational) factors; related to the actor-observer bias Explanations for the FAE: Saliency Bias Focusing on the most noticeable (salient) factors when explaining the causes of behavior Just-World Phenomenon Tendency to believe that people generally get what they deserve
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6. Fundamental Attribution Error
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Self-serving Bias
Taking credit for our successes and externalizing our failures
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8. Culture and Attribution
Collectivistic cultures tend to be more aware of situational constraints for others Less likely to experience the FAE and self-serving bias
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Attitudes
Learned predisposition to respond cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally to a particular object
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10. Attitudes and Cognitive Dissonance
Unpleasant tension and anxiety caused by a discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior A way to create attitude change
ANIMATION
Attitudes and Cognitive Dissonance
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11. Cognitive Dissonance Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)
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12. Cognitive Dissonance Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)
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13. Cognitive Dissonance: An Example
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14. Cognitive Dissonance: Summary
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15. Our feelings about others
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16. Prejudice and Discrimination
A learned, generally negative, attitude toward members of a group
Three components:
Thoughts (stereotypes)
Feelings/Emotions
Behavioral tendencies (possible discrimination)
Implicit Bias
Hidden, automatic attitude that may serve as a guide to behaviors independent of a person’s awareness or control
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17. Prejudice and Discrimination
Stereotype A set of beliefs about the characteristics of people in a group that is generalized to all group members; the cognitive component of prejudice Discrimination Negative behaviors directed at members of a group
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18. Prejudice and Discrimination
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19. Major Sources of Prejudice and Discrimination
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20. Stereotypes and Classification
Ingroup Favoritism
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect
Viewing members of the ingroup more positively than members of an outgroup
Judging members of an outgroup as more alike and less diverse than members of the ingroup
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21. Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination
Cooperation and Common Goals Encourage cooperation and not competition Intergroup Contact Close interaction, interdependence, equal status Cognitive Retraining Perspective taking, focus on similarities Cognitive Dissonance Examples that don’t conform to prejudiced views
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22. Interpersonal Attraction
Positive feelings toward another
Three key factors:
Physical attractiveness
Proximity
Similarity
Wishful Seeing (icon on left)
Our eyes may be playing tricks on us. New research shows that sometimes people physically see what they want to see.
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23. Physical Attractiveness
Factor in initial liking
Physically attractive individuals of all ages receive more positive interactions, success, and health benefits
Perceived attractiveness is also influenced by nonphysical traits
Matching hypothesis—people of equal attractiveness tend to select each other as partners
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Flirting
Women
Men
Often initiate
Glances
Smile
Hand gestures
Primping
Sit straighter
Body orientation
Whispers
Touches
Play behaviors
Make the first approach
Look for clear signals
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Proximity
Attraction based on geographic closeness Important for initial liking Mere exposure—repeated exposure increases liking, unless it is a negative stimulus
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Similarity
Major factor in long-term relationships Prefer similarity in many different aspects of life and personhood “Birds of a feather flock together” Need complementarity—attraction toward those with qualities we admire but personally lack Need compatibility—attraction based on sharing similar needs
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27. Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
Three Components of Love Intimacy Passion Commitment
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28. Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
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Types of Love
Romantic
Companionate
Intense feeling of attraction to another within an erotic context and with future expectations
Near universal
Typically short lived
Largely based on mystery and fantasy
Interference can increase these feelings
Strong and lasting attraction characterized by trust, caring, tolerance, and friendship
Grows stronger
with time
Overlook each
other’s faults
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30. Culture and Attractiveness
Some universals: Men—maturity, ambitiousness, financial resources (suggest support for partner and family) Women—looks and youth (suggest fertility) Also differences in what is considered beautiful
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31. Our actions toward others
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Social Influence
Which line (A, B, or C) matches the line on the right (X)?
Two primary types of social influence:
Conformity
Obedience
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Conformity
Changing behavior because of real or imagined group pressure Normative Social Influence Conforming to group pressure out of a need for approval and acceptance Norm Cultural rule of behavior prescribing what is acceptable in a given situation Informational Social Influence Conforming because of a need for information and direction Reference Groups People we conform to because we like and admire them and want to be like them
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Obedience
Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure
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35. Milgram’s Studies of Obedience
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36. Milgram’s Studies of Obedience
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Obedience
Four factors in obedience:
Legitimacy and closeness of the authority figure
Remoteness of the victim
Assignment of responsibility
Modeling or imitating others
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38. Reducing Destructive Obedience
Socialization
Power of the situation—e.g., roles
Groupthink
Foot-in-the-door—small requests build to larger requests
Relaxed moral guard
Disobedient models
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Group Processes
Group membership Group decision making
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Group Membership
Roles Stanford Prison Study (Zimbardo)
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Group Membership
Deindividuation—reduced self-consciousness, inhibition, and personal responsibility that sometimes occurs in a group, particularly when the members feel anonymous
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Group Decision Making
Group Polarization
Groupthink
Group’s movement toward either riskier or more conservative behavior, depending on the members’ initial dominant tendency
Faulty decision making that occurs when a highly cohesive group strives for agreement and avoids inconsistent information
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Groupthink
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Groupthink
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Groupthink
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Aggression
Any behavior intended to harm another living being
Some approaches for reducing aggression:
Catharsis
typically doesn’t help
Incompatible responses
Improve social and communication skills
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Teen Steroids
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Aggression
Biological Factors
Psychosocial Factors
Instincts
Genes
Brain and Nervous System
Substance Abuse and Other Mental Disorders
Hormones and Neurotransmitters
Aversive Stimuli
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis—blocking of a desired goal (frustration) creates anger that may lead to aggression
Culture and Learning
Violent Media
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Altruism
Actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit to the helper
Explanatory models:
Evolutionary—favors survival of one’s genes
Egoistic—motivated by anticipated gain
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis— due to empathy for someone in need
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Altruism
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50. Altruism and Decision Making
Diffusion of Responsibility—dilution (diffusion) of personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members
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