1. Chapter 7 The Cost of Production

2. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 72 Topics to be Discussed Measuring Cost: Which Costs Matter? Cost in the Short Run Cost in the Long Run Long-Run Versus Short-Run Cost Curves

3. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 73 Introduction The production technology measures the relationship between input and output. Production technology, together with prices of factor inputs, determine the firm’s cost of production Given the production technology, managers must choose how to produce.

4. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 74 Introduction The optimal, cost minimizing, level of inputs can be determined. A firm’s costs depend on the rate of output and we will show how these costs are likely to change over time. The characteristics of the firm’s production technology can affect costs in the long run and short run.

5. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 75 Fixed and Variable Costs Total output is a function of variable inputs and fixed inputs. Therefore, the total cost of production equals the fixed cost (the cost of the fixed inputs) plus the variable cost (the cost of the variable inputs), or…

6. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 76 Fixed and Variable Costs Which costs are variable and which are fixed depends on the time horizon Short time horizon – most costs are fixed Long time horizon – many costs become variable In determining how changes in production will affect costs, must consider if affects fixed or variable costs

7. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 77 Marginal and Average Cost In completing a discussion of costs, must also distinguish between  Average Cost  Marginal Cost After definition of costs is complete, one can consider the analysis between short- run and long-run costs

8. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 78 Measuring Costs Marginal Cost (MC):  The cost of expanding output by one unit.  Fixed cost have no impact on marginal cost, so it can be written as:

9. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 79 Measuring Costs Average Total Cost (ATC)  Cost per unit of output  Also equals average fixed cost (AFC) plus average variable cost (AVC).

10. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 710 Measuring Costs All the types of costs relevant to production have now been discussed Can now discuss how they differ in the long and short run Costs that are fixed in the short run may not be fixed in the long run Typically in the long run, most if not all costs are variable

11. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 711 A Firm’s Short Run Costs

12. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 712 Cost Curves The following figures illustrate how various cost measure change as output change Curves based on the information in table 7.1 discussed earlier

13. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 713 Cost Curves for a Firm Output Cost ($ per year) 100 200 300 400 012345678910111213 VC Variable cost increases with production and the rate varies with increasing & decreasing returns. TC Total cost is the vertical sum of FC and VC. FC 50 Fixed cost does not vary with output

14. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 714 Cost Curves MC ATC AVC AFC

15. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 715 Cost Curves When MC is below AVC, AVC is falling When MC is above AVC, AVC is rising When MC is below ATC, ATC is falling When MC is above ATC, ATC is rising Therefore, MC crosses AVC and ATC at the minimums  The Average – Marginal relationship

16. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 716 Cost Curves for a Firm The line drawn from the origin to the variable cost curve:  Its slope equals AVC  The slope of a point on VC or TC equals MC  Therefore, MC = AVC at 7 units of output (point A) 123456789101112 13 Output P 100 200 300 400 FC VC TC A

17. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 717 Cost in the Long Run In the long run a firm can change all of its inputs In making cost minimizing choices, must look at the cost of using capital and labor in production decisions

18. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 718 Cost Minimizing Input Choice How do we put all this together to select inputs to produce a given output at minimum cost? Assumptions  Two Inputs: Labor (L) & capital (K)  Price of labor: wage rate (w)  The price of capital r = depreciation rate + interest rate Or rental rate if not purchasing

19. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 719 Cost in the Long Run The Isocost Line  A line showing all combinations of L & K that can be purchased for the same cost  Total cost of production is sum of firm’s labor cost, wL and its capital cost rK C = wL + rK  For each different level of cost, the equation shows another isocost line

20. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 720 Cost in the Long Run Rewriting C as an equation for a straight line:  K = C/r - (w/r)L  Slope of the isocost:

21. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 721 Choosing Inputs We will address how to minimize cost for a given level of output by combining isocosts with isoquants We choose the output we wish to produce and then determine how to do that at minimum cost  Isoquant is the quantity we wish to produce  Isocost is the combination of K and L that gives a set cost

22. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 722 Producing a Given Output at Minimum Cost Labor per year Capital per year Isocost C 2 shows quantity Q 1 can be produced with combination K 2 L 2 or K 3 L 3. However, both of these are higher cost combinations than K 1 L 1. Q1Q1 Q 1 is an isoquant for output Q 1. There are three isocost lines, of which 2 are possible choices in which to produce Q1 C0C0 C1C1 C2C2 A K1K1 L1L1 K3K3 L3L3 K2K2 L2L2

23. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 723 Input Substitution When an Input Price Change If the price of labor changes, then the slope of the isocost line change, w/r It now takes a new quantity of labor and capital to produce the output If price of labor increases relative to price of capital, and capital is substituted for labor

24. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 724 Input Substitution When an Input Price Change C2C2 The new combination of K and L is used to produce Q 1. Combination B is used in place of combination A. K2K2 L2L2 B C1C1 K1K1 L1L1 A Q1Q1 If the price of labor rises, the isocost curve becomes steeper due to the change in the slope -(w/L). Labor per year Capital per year

25. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 725 Cost in the Long Run How does the isocost line relate to the firm’s production process?

26. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 726 Cost in the Long Run The minimum cost combination can then be written as:  Minimum cost for a given output will occur when each dollar of input added to the production process will add an equivalent amount of output.

27. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 727 Cost in the Long Run If w = $10, r = $2, and MP L = MP K, which input would the producer use more of?  Labor because it is cheaper  Increasing labor lowers MP L  Decreasing capital raises MP K  Substitute labor for capital until

28. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 728 Cost in the Long Run Cost minimization with Varying Output Levels  For each level of output, there is an isocost curve showing minimum cost for that output level  A firm’s expansion path shows the minimum cost combinations of labor and capital at each level of output.  Slope equals  K/  L

29. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 729 A Firm’s Expansion Path Expansion Path The expansion path illustrates the least-cost combinations of labor and capital that can be used to produce each level of output in the long-run. Capital per year 25 50 75 100 150 50 Labor per year 100150300200 A $200 0 200 Units B $3000 300 Units C

30. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 730 Expansion Path & Long-run Costs Firms expansion path has same information as long-run total cost curve To move from expansion path to LR cost curve  Find tangency with isoquant and isocost  Determine min cost of producing the output level selected  Graph output-cost combination

31. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 731 A Firm’s Long-Run Total Cost Curve Long Run Total Cost Output, Units/yr 100300200 Cost/ Year 1000 2000 3000 D E F

32. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 732 Long-Run Versus Short-Run Cost Curves In the short run some costs are fixed In the long run firm can change anything including plant size  Can produce at a lower average cost in long run than in short run  Capital and labor are both flexible We can show this by holding capital fixed in the short run and flexible in long run

33. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 733 Capital is fixed at K1 To produce q1, min cost at K1,L1 If increase output to Q2, min cost is K1 and L3 in short run The Inflexibility of Short-Run Production Long-Run Expansion Path Labor per year Capital per year L2L2 Q2Q2 K2K2 D C F E Q1Q1 A B L1L1 K1K1 L3L3 P Short-Run Expansion Path In LR, can change capital and min costs falls to K2 and L2

34. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 734 Long-Run Versus Short-Run Cost Curves Long-Run Average Cost (LAC)  Most important determinant of the shape of the LR AC and MC curves is relationship between scale of the firm’s operation and inputs required to min cost 1.Constant Returns to Scale  If input is doubled, output will double  AC cost is constant at all levels of output.

35. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 735 Long-Run Versus Short-Run Cost Curves 2.Increasing Returns to Scale  If input is doubled, output will more than double  AC decreases at all levels of output. 3.Decreasing Returns to Scale  If input is doubled, output will less than double  AC increases at all levels of output

36. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 736 Long-Run Versus Short-Run Cost Curves In the long-run:  Firms experience increasing and decreasing returns to scale and therefore long-run average cost is “U” shaped.  Source of U-shape is due to returns to scale instead of decreasing returns to scale like the short run curve  Long-run marginal cost curve measures the change in long-run total costs as output is increased by 1 unit

37. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 737 Long-Run Versus Short-Run Cost Curves Long-run marginal cost leads long-run average cost:  If LMC < LAC, LAC will fall  If LMC > LAC, LAC will rise  Therefore, LMC = LAC at the minimum of LAC In special case where LAC if constant, LAC and LMC are equal

38. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 738 Long-Run Average and Marginal Cost Output Cost ($ per unit of output LAC LMC A

39. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 739 Long Run Costs As output increases, firm’s AC of producing is likely to decline to a point 1.On a larger scale, workers can better specialize 2.Scale can provide flexibility – managers can organize production more effectively 3.Firm may be able to get inputs at lower cost if can get quantity discounts. Lower prices might lead to different input mix

40. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 740 Long Run Costs At some point, AC will begin to increase 1.Factory space and machinery may make it more difficult for workers to do their job efficiently 2.Managing a larger firm may become more complex and inefficient as the number of tasks increase 3.Bulk discounts can no longer be utilized. Limited availability of inputs may cause price to rise

41. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 741 Long Run Costs When input proportions change, the firm’s expansion path is no longer a straight line  Concept of return to scale no longer applies Economies of scale reflects input proportions that change as the firm change its level of production

42. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 742 Economies and Diseconomies of Scale Economies of Scale  Increase in output is greater than the increase in inputs. Diseconomies of Scale  Increase in output is less than the increase in inputs. U-shaped LAC shows economies of scale for relatively low output levels and diseconomies of scale for higher levels

43. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 743 Long Run Costs Increasing Returns to Scale  Output more than doubles when the quantities of all inputs are doubled Economies of Scale  Doubling of output requires less than a doubling of cost

44. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 744 Long-Run Versus Short-Run Cost Curves We will use short and long-run cost to determine the optimal plant size We can show the short run average costs for 3 different plant sizes This decision is important because once built, the firm may not be able to change plant size for a while

45. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 745 Long-Run Cost with Constant Returns to Scale The optimal plant size will depend on the anticipated output  If expect to produce q 0, then should build smallest plant: AC = $8  If produce more, like q 1, AC rises  If expect to produce q 2, middle plant is least cost  If expect to produce q 3, largest plant is best

46. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 746 Long-Run Cost with Economies and Diseconomies of Scale

47. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 747 Long-Run Cost with Constant Returns to Scale What is the firms’ long-run cost curve?  Firms can change scale to change output in the long-run.  The long-run cost curve is the dark blue portion of the SAC curve which represents the minimum cost for any level of output.  Firm will always choose plant that minimizes the average cost of production

48. ©2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 748 Long-Run Cost with Constant Returns to Scale The long-run average cost curve envelopes the short-run average cost curves The LAC curve exhibits economies of scale initially but exhibits diseconomies at higher output levels