1. DNA: life's code =

2. What does DNA mean?
DNA=
Deoxyribo-Nucleic Acid
_____________

3. What's its function?
DNA makes up genes that determines the ______ of all living things….such as:
traits
Eye color, skin color, texture, freckles, hair color, style…etc

4. DNA Makes up _____________ GENES Controls ____________ TRAITS
CHROMOSOMES
Forms _______________________
NUCLEUS
Found in the __________ of all cells

5. ...that has been __________
DNA looks like...
A ladder
twisted
...that has been __________
over and over.
It's called a
"________________"
Double helix

6. C = CYTOSINE G = GUANINE T = THYMINE A = ADENINE
The code is found in the “________” of the ladder.
Each rung is a combination of ______ ________________ bonded together.
The Nitrogen bases are:
C = CYTOSINE
G = GUANINE
T = THYMINE
A = ADENINE
RUNGS
2 nitrogen bases

7. “A” bonds ONLY with “___”C G
“C” bonds ONLY with “___” G A T A T G C G C C G
This goes on for the entire length of the DNA molecule, which consists of __________ of nitrogen bases. T
billions A

8. The Code
The ____________________ in DNA will determine what the trait is.
sequence of letters
For example: Lets take a look at the letters of the alphabet…
If you change the letters to
“L O W”
it no longer means…
“O W L” means
However…
“A predatory bird”
“A predatory bird”

9. DNA Code
Since DNA consists of billions of nitrogen bases, the amount of variation among organisms is HUGE. If you change only one letter, the entire code will be changed, and therefore the organism will be different!!

10. DNA is composed of four types of nucleotides.
DNA is made up of a long chain of nucleotides.
Each nucleotide has three parts.
1) a phosphate group
2) a deoxyribose sugar
3) a nitrogen-containing base
phosphate group
deoxyribose (sugar)
nitrogen-containing
base

11. The nitrogen containing bases are the only difference in the four nucleotides.

12. Nucleotides always pair in the same way.
The base-pairing rules show how nucleotides always pair up in DNA.
A pairs with T
C pairs with G
Because a pyrimidine (single ring) pairs with a purine (double ring), the helix has a uniform width. C G T A

13. How are DNA & chromosomes related? DNA makes up a _______________.
Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of every cell in the body!!
chromosome

14. What is a gene?
A gene is a
________________________that codes for a __________________.
Small piece
Of DNA
gene
specific
trait
30,000
There are about __________ genes in an entire DNA molecule

15. Making proteins DNA RNA Protein ribosome nucleus (Physical trait)
RNA is a “__________” molecule. It helps carry the DNA code to the __________ so it can make the protein.
helper
Skin color/texture
Eye color/shape
Height
Bone density
Hair texture
Etc…
ribosome
DNA contains the code for what protein will be made by the cell

16. Questions Deoxyribo-nucleic acid T- T- C- A- G- C-- T- A- C- C- G- T-
What does DNA mean? _____________________________________
Suppose one side of a DNA molecule had the bases
A-A-G-T-C- G- A-T-G-G-C-A-C-C. What would the other side of the DNA look like? ____________________________________________
What is the function of RNA? _____________________________
What is a mutation? ______________________________________
What term best describes what a DNA looks like? _________________
Explain the relationship between DNA, chromosomes, and genes?
__________________________________________________________
If everyone consists of only 4 nitrogen bases (A-T-C-G), why are no two people alike? __________________________________
How many chromosomes does a human have? ___________
How many genes does a human have? ___________
Therefore, approximately how many genes are on a single chromosome? ______
If 24% of a DNA molecule is Adenine, what percent would be…
Thymine = ____% Guanine= _____% Cytosine= _____% T- T- C- A- G-
C-- T- A- C- C- G- T-
G-G
carry the DNA code to the ribosome
A random change in the DNA code
Double helix
A chromosomes is made up of DNA, which is consists of about 30,000 genes
bc it’s the sequence of nitogen bases that makes us different 46
About 30,000
~ 650 24 26 26

17. UNDERSTANDING THE COMPONENTS OF DNA
If there is 37% of Adenine in a DNA molecule…
How much Thymine? ___________
How much Cytosine? ___________
How much Guanine? ___________
If there is 23% of Guanine in a DNA molecule…
How much Thymine? ___________
How much Cytosine? ___________
How much Adenine? ___________
If there is 18% of Cytosine in a DNA molecule, which is the only possibility for another nitrogen base? (Put an ‘X’ on your answer)
________18% Adenine
________64% Adenine
________ 32% Guanine
________ 32% Thymine

18. Replication makes an exact copy of a cell’s DNA
A single strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand.
The rules of base pairing direct replication.
DNA is replicated during the ____________stage of the cell cycle.
Each body cell gets a complete set of identical DNA.
DNA replication takes place in
___________
S (synthesis)
Nucleus

19. Proteins carry out the process of replication.
DNA serves only as a template.
Enzymes and other proteins do the actual work of replication.
Enzymes unzip the _______________
Free-floating nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with the template strand.
Double helix
nucleotide
The DNA molecule unzips in both directions.

20. RNA carries DNA’s instructions.
The central dogma states that information flows in one direction from _____________
______________
DNA to RNA to
protein

21. The central dogma includes three processes.
1) Replication
2) Transcription
3) Translation
replication
transcription
translation
RNA is a link between DNA and proteins.

22. single-stranded structure
RNA differs from DNA in three major ways.
1)RNA has a ____________________
2)RNA has ___________ instead of thymine.
3)RNA is a __________________________.
Ribose sugar
uracil
single-stranded structure

23. The transcription process is similar to replication.
Transcription and replication both involve complex enzymes and complementary base pairing.
The two processes have different end results.
Replication copies all the________; transcription copies a ___________.
Replication makes _______ copy; transcription can make ________copies.
growing RNA strands
DNA
one
gene
DNA
gene
one
many

24. Mutations
When the sequence of letters is changed. Since the code no longer reads the correct way, the cell does not make the correct protein.
Consequently, a different trait may appear.
They are usually _________
Oops!!
bad

25. Some mutations affect a single gene, while others affect an entire chromosome.
a change in an organism’s DNA
A mutation is _______________________________.
Many kinds of mutations can occur, especially during replication.
A point mutation substitutes one nucleotide for another.
mutated
base

26. Many kinds of mutations can occur, especially during replication.
A frameshift mutation inserts or deletes a nucleotide in the DNA sequence.

27. Chromosomal mutations affect many genes.
Chromosomal mutations may occur during crossing over
Chromosomal mutations affect many genes.
Gene duplication results from unequal crossing over.

28. Mutations can be caused by several factors.
Replication errors can cause mutations.
Mutagens, such as UV ray and chemicals, can cause mutations.
Some cancer drugs use mutagenic properties to kill cancer cells.

29. MUTATIONS
CHANGE
A MUTATION is any _________________ in copying the DNA message.
CHANGE = WRONG ______________
A wrong base in the DNA gives the cell the wrong __________________.
If a cell has the wrong message, the wrong type of ________________ is made.
If the wrong protein is made, the wrong ________________ may appear.
BASE PAIR
MESSAGE
PROTEIN
TRAIT

30. CAUSES OF MUTATIONS Simple copying mistakes during cell reproduction
A mutation causes a change in an offspring’s traits only when it takes place in the ___________________ sex cells.
Chemicals
_______________
Radiation
PARENTS
NICOTINE
ASBESTOS
SUN
Although most mutations that change protein sequences are harmful, some mutations have a positive effect on an organism. In this case, the mutation may enable the mutant organism to withstand particular environmental stresses better than wild-type organisms, or reproduce more quickly. In these cases a mutation will tend to become more common in a population through natural selection.
For example, a specific 32 base pair deletion in human CCR5 (CCR5-Δ32) confers HIV resistance to homozygotes and delays AIDS onset in heterozygotes.[35] The CCR5 mutation is more common in those of European descent. One possible explanation of the etiology of the relatively high frequency of CCR5-Δ32 in the European population is that it conferred resistance to the bubonic plague in mid-14th century Europe. People with this mutation were more likely to survive infection; thus its frequency in the population increased.[36] This theory could explain why this mutation is not found in Africa, where the bubonic plague never reached. A newer theory suggests that the selective pressure on the CCR5 Delta 32 mutation was caused by smallpox instead of the bubonic plague.[37]
X-RAY
__________________: Any agent that can cause alterations to DNA
MUTAGEN

31. EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS HARMFUL MUTATIONS HELPFUL MUTATIONS
Any trait that interferes with the ______________________
and _________________ of an organism.
Any trait that enhances an organisms ability to______________________
and _________________ in its _____________________.
REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCE
SURVIVAL
SURVIVE
ENVIRONMENT
Although most mutations that change protein sequences are harmful, some mutations have a positive effect on an organism. In this case, the mutation may enable the mutant organism to withstand particular environmental stresses better than wild-type organisms, or reproduce more quickly. In these cases a mutation will tend to become more common in a population through natural selection.
For example, a specific 32 base pair deletion in human CCR5 (CCR5-Δ32) confers HIV resistance to homozygotes and delays AIDS onset in heterozygotes.[35] The CCR5 mutation is more common in those of European descent. One possible explanation of the etiology of the relatively high frequency of CCR5-Δ32 in the European population is that it conferred resistance to the bubonic plague in mid-14th century Europe. People with this mutation were more likely to survive infection; thus its frequency in the population increased.[36] This theory could explain why this mutation is not found in Africa, where the bubonic plague never reached. A newer theory suggests that the selective pressure on the CCR5 Delta 32 mutation was caused by smallpox instead of the bubonic plague.[37]

32. CLONING
The term “clone” refers to organisms having ____________________
Two “clones” are exact _______________ of each other.
Same _______ = Same __________ = Same _________
Examples of clones:
a. _________________: form from the splitting of _____ fertilized egg
b. Clone organisms produced in ___________________
IDENTICAL DNA
copies
DNA
GENES
TRAITS
IDENTICAL TWINS
ONE
LABORATORY

34. Fraternal Twins vs Identical Twins
_____________________ eggs are fertilized by
_____________________ sperm.
Each egg and sperm carry __________________combinations of ____________.
Therefore, each offspring will ________________genetically.
TWO DIFFERENT
TWO DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT
DNA
VARY

35. Insert Nucleus from Dark frog into egg of Light frog
Cloning DNA 20 20 20 20 20
Remove
Body Cells
Dark Green Frog
Insert Nucleus from Dark frog into egg of Light frog 10 10
Remove
Unfertilized
Ovum
Destroy
Nucleus
Light Green Frog

36. What color frog do you get?
Dark Green

37. Dolly

38. DNA in Review DNA MOLECULE _______________ SIDE PARTS RUNG PARTS
(SHAPE)
SIDE PARTS RUNG PARTS
___________ ___________
___________
& ___________
___________ ___________

39. What is the difference between a cell,
nucleus, chromosome, genes, and DNA?
How are they related?

40. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN…
Cell: ________________________________
Nucleus: ________________________________
Chromosome: _________________________________
Gene(s): _____________________________________
DNA: ________________________________________
How are they related? _____________________________
_______________________________________________