1. TI - 10111 Cellular Mobile Communication Systems Lecture 9 Engr. Shahryar Saleem Assistant Professor Department of Telecom Engineering University of Engineering and Technology Taxila EE-6211

2. TI - 10112 IS-95 System Features Digital Voice – Qualcomm Code Excited Linear Prediction fixed rate 14.4Kbps coder – variable rate QCELP coder: 9.6, 4.8, 2.4, 1.2 Kbps As data rate reduces, the transmitter can reduce the power to achieve the same error rates Dual Mode (AMPS/CDMA), Dual Band (900, 1900 MHz bands) Low power handsets Soft Handoff possible Digital Data services (text, fax, circuit switched data) Advanced Telephony Features (call waiting, voice mail, etc.) Security: CDMA signal + Cellular Authentication Voice privacy Encryption (CAVE Algorithm) Air Interface Standard Only

3. TI - 10113 IS-95 System Features (cont) Code Division Multiple Access/FDMA/FDD Traffic Channel – Pair of 1.25 MHz radio channels (up/downlink) – Several users share a radio channel separated by a code not a timeslot or frequency! – Receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only desired codeword – All other codewords appear as noise due to decorrelation – Receiver needs to know only codeword and frequency used by transmitter – Adjust power often to prevent near –far problem Universal frequency reuse (frequency reuse cluster size K =1) – Simple planning – large capacity increase

4. TI - 10114 Universal Frequency Reuse

5. TI - 10115 CDMA CDMA Advantages – resistant to narrow band interference – resistant to multipath fading and ISI – no hard limit on number of users (soft capacity) As number of users on a frequency increase the BER goes up though – frequency reuse cluster size of K = 1 !!!! Large Capacity Increase compared to TDMA, FDMA Disadvantages – Implementation complexity of spread spectrum – Synchronization requirements – Power control is essential for practical operation Used in cdmaone and both 3G standards

6. TI - 10116 CDMA Properties: Multipath Combining Multipath: reflection, diffraction, and dispersion of the signal energy caused by natural obstacles such as buildings or hills, or multiple copies of signals sent intentionally (soft handover) Rake receiver used to combine different path components: each path is despread separately by “fingers” of the Rake receiver and then combined Possible due to “low auto- -correlation” of spreading code

7. TI - 10117 Rake Receiver

8. TI - 10118 Multipath Resolution and the Rake Receiver

9. TI - 10119 IS-95 CDMA Radio Aspects IS-95 is an air interface standard only System use FDD/FDMA/CDMA FDD => Uplink and Downlink channels separated according to Cellular band or PCS band regulatory requirements Bandwidth after spreading is 1.23 MHz with guardband becomes 1.25 MHz IS-95a standard designed for AMPS (800 MHz) cellular band – Each cellular provider is allocated 25 MHz spectrum => ten 1.25- MHz CDMA duplex channels if A AMPS Band provider, 9 if B band provider – Channel operates at 1.228 Mchips/sec – A 64 bit spreading code is used (Walsh Code) – Modulation is QPSK and slight variations of QPSK

10. TI - 101110 Physical Channels A CDMA system has 1.25 MHz wideband carriers – Carrier bandwidth in AMPS is 30 kHz – Carrier bandwidth in GSM is 200 kHz – Carrier bandwidth in IS-95 is 1.23 MHz – 1.25MHz with guard band One CDMA carrier can contain 41 AMPS channels (41x30=1230) In Cellular Band IS-95 carrier frequencies are denoted in terms of the AMPS channel numbers

11. TI - 101111 Interference between CDMA and AMPS/TDMA Systems The recommended guard band between the CDMA carrier band edge and an AMPS or TDMA carrier is 270 KHz => 9 AMPS channels of 30 kHz To set up one CDMA channel, 59 AMPS channels have to be cleared (1.77 MHz) To set up two CDMA channels, only 100 AMPS channels have to be cleared (3 MHz)

12. TI - 101112 Modulation and Coding Features

13. TI - 101113 Codes Used in IS-95 Systems Walsh codes –They are the “orthogonal codes” used to create “logical channels” on the up/downlink (at the same time and within the same frequency band) –The orthagonal codes are used to isolate the transmissions between different channels within a cell PN (pseudo-noise) codes –They are used to distinguish between transmissions from different cells and are generated using “linear feedback shift registers” – Basically a pseudo-random number generator – They have excellent autocorrelation and cross correlation properties – Two short PN codes and a long PN code are used in IS-95 that have periods of 2 15 – 1 and 2 42 – 1 Convolutional codes for error correction Block codes with interleaving and error correction

14. TI - 101114 Sample IS-95 System Identifiers

15. TI - 101115 IS-95 Logical Channels CDMA systems define multiple channels per frequency channel Pilot channel – Provides a reference to all signals (beacon) Sync channel – Used for obtaining timing information Paging channel – Used to “page” the mobile terminal when there is an incoming call Traffic channel – Carries actual voice or data traffic : fundamental code channel Up to seven supplemental code channels

16. TI - 101116 IS-95 CDMA Channels

17. TI - 101117 Basic Spreading Procedure On The Forward Channel in IS-95  Symbols (after coding, interleaving) are generated at different rates  The symbols are modulated by Walsh codes which are obtained from Hadamard Matrices (see text book, page 372)  Each Walsh code identifies one of the 64 forward channels  After spreading the symbols by orthogonal codes, they are further scrambled in the in-phase and quadrature phase lines by short PN- spreading codes (length 15 and period of 32,768 chips)  PN –spreading codes are not orthogonal but possess good autocorrelation and cross-correlation properties

18. TI - 101118 Basic Spreading Procedure On The Forward Channel in IS-95

19. TI - 101119 IS-95 Forward Channel

20. TI - 101120 Pilot Channel It is continuously transmitted by a BS on the forward link –Like a “beacon” (Compare BCCH in GSM) –Acts as the reference signal for all MSs –Used to lock onto all other logical channels –Used in demodulation and coherent detection –Used to measure RSS for handoff and open loop power control –It uses all the zero Walsh code (W 0 ) and contains no information except the RF carrier –It is also spread using the PN sequence code to identify the BS

21. TI - 101121 Pilot Channel Creation

22. TI - 101122 Sync Channel The sync channel is used to acquire initial time synchronization It uses Walsh code W 32 for spreading Sync channel uses the same PN spreading code for scrambling as the pilot channel The sync channel data operates at 1,200 bps After a rate ½ convolution encoding, the data rate in increased to 2400 bps, repeated to 4800 bps and then block interleaving is employed The sync message includes the system and network identification, the offset of the PN-short code, the state of the PN-long code and the paging channel data rate (4.8 or 9.2 kbps)

23. TI - 101123 Sync Channel Creation

24. TI - 101124 Paging Channel Used to page the MS when there is an incoming call Carry control messages for call setup Employs Walsh Codes W 1 -W 7, so there may be up to 7 paging channels There is no power control for the pilot, sync and paging channels The paging channel is scrambled using the PN long code of length 42 and has a period of 2 42 See text for the paging channel processing page 373

25. TI - 101125 Traffic Channel Carry actual user information (digitally encoded voice or data) The Forward traffic channel has two possible rate sets RS1 and Rs2 RS1 supports data rates of 9.6, 4.8, 2.4 and 1.2 Kbps RS2 supports data rates of 14.4, 7.2, 3.6 and 1.8 kbps RS1 has mandatory support for IS-95 RS2 can be optionally supported Walsh codes W 2 through W 31 and W 33 through W 63 can be usede to spread the traffic channels depending on how many paging channels are supported in the cell

26. TI - 101126 IS-95 Reverse Channel From MS to Base Station On Reverse Channel the Walsh codes are not used to isolate different users, but in orthogonal signalling Orthogonal codes are used for waveform encoding There are no pilot or synch channels There is an “access channel” where mobile terminals contend in random access fashion to set up a call/register location/page response

27. TI - 101127 Reverse CDMA Channel

28. TI - 101128 Waveform Encoding in IS-95 Example: Consider the Hadamard matrix H 8 There are eight orthogonal Walsh Codes We can perform mapping between inputs of three bits to one of the eight waveforms

29. TI - 101129 Waveform Encoding (cont)

30. TI - 101130 Waveform Encoding in IS-95 (cont) Different mapping scheme employed in IS-95 Consider the Walsh code of length 64 There are 64 codes which are orthogonal to each other If these codes are used as waveforms to represent a group of information bits, we can encode log 2 64=6 bits using a Walsh code Example: 6 bits (000000) can be transmitted using the Walsh code W 0 The Walsh code used in IS-95 is determined by the equation i = c 0 + 2c 1 + 4c 2 + 8c 3 + 16c 4 + 32c 5 Where c0 is the earliest bit and c5 is the latest bit Example: 111010 (c5… c0) would translate into i = 1+2x1+4x1+8x0+16x1+32x0 = 1+2+4+0+16+0 = 23 => W 23

31. TI - 101131 Two Types of IS-95 Reverse Channel Access Channel in IS-95 Is used by the MS to initiate communication with the BS & to respond to Paging Channel message Fixed data rate (4800 bps) & 20 ms frame duration Access Channel Message may carry Origination of a call Paging responses Orders response Data bursts Acknowledgements to Paging Channel message Registration Basic Frame Structure: The access channel data has 96 bits every 20 ms for a data rate of 4.8 kbps – 88 bits carry the access channel data – 8 bits are encoder tail bits

32. TI - 101132 Access Channel in IS-95

33. TI - 101133 Access Channel (cont) There are up to 32 access channels per downlink paging channel – MSs are pseudorandomly distributed between the access channels The 4.8 kbps data is encoded using a rate 1/3 convolutional encoder Output of the convolutional encoder is 14.4 kbps The output symbols are repeated to get a rate of 28.8 kbps Every six bits is mapped into one Walsh code of 64 bits (chips) in the 64-ary orthogonal modulator

34. TI - 101134 Reverse Traffic Channel in IS-95 Fundamental Code Channel Vocoder Reduces bit rate needed to represent speech. Operates in a variable mode of full, ½, ¼ &1/8 rates. Rate set 1 vocoder full-rate output is at 9.6 kbps and rate set 2 full rate output is at 14.4 kbps. Convolutional Coding Provides error detection/correction. Symbol Repetition –Repetition of input symbols from the encoder. –Repetition is done to maintain a constant input to the block interleaver. –Full-rate symbols are not repeated and sent at full power –Half-rate repeated once & sent at half power and so on. For rate set 1 the output is maintained at 19.2 ksps (independent of vocoding rate) and for rate set 2 the output is 28.8 ksps.

35. TI - 101135 Reverse Traffic Channel in IS-95 (cont) Orthogonal Modulation –Blocks of 6 input symbols are replaced by a corresponding 64- chip Walsh code. Block Interleaving –Combat the effects of Rayleigh fading by ensuring that sequential data is not lost. Data Burst Randomizer –Provides variable-rate transmission. Symbols which are repeated are deleted,.i.e., not transmitted. The transmitted duty cycle varies with the vocoder data rate and the transmission are randomized.

36. TI - 101136 Reverse Traffic Channel in IS-95 (cont) Sequence Spreading –Provides spreading of the code. In the reverse link the data is spread using the user’s long code mask based on the ESN. Quadrature Spreading –The channel is spread with the pilot PN sequence with a zero offset. Ensures that the mobile station is locked on to the right base station. Baseband Filtering –Converts the signals to the cellular frequency range (800 MHz) or the PCS frequency(1900 MHz).

37. TI - 101137 Reverse Traffic Channel in IS-95 Supplementary Code Channel The supplementary code channel is primarily used for data traffic (full rate is assumed) – There is no need for a data randomizer A single user can have many codes simultaneously to transmit data

38. TI - 101138 Mobility and Radio Resource Management in IS-95 IS-95 uses Spread Sprectrum that brings a set of advantages not available to TDMA-based systems –Frequency reuse factor of 1 –Robust performance in the presence of Interference and Multipath –Ability to increase Capacity Operation with a RAKE receiver is an important characteristics of CDMA (provides diversity in the presence of multipath fading to improve voice quality The figures of RAKE receiver can select either a multipath signal or a signal from another base station if it is within the range of the MS This ability of IS-95 is employed in what is known as Soft handoffs

39. TI - 101139 Soft Handoff in IS-95 If a mobile terminal moves away from a base station and continues to increase its transmit power to maintain contact with base station – at edge of cell will need to handoff to adjacent cell (Also near far problem) In soft handoff a mobile terminal is required to track the pilot signals from all neighbouring base stations – It will communicate with multiple base stations simultaneously for a short while before deciding on the final candidate – This is possible because of the RAKE receiver and direct sequence spread-spectrum – Not all handoffs will be soft!– hard handoff when CDMA to AMPS and inter–CDMA frequency channel handoffs – Note soft handoff reduces system capacity as mobile tying up 2 traffic channels

40. TI - 101140 CDMA System Concepts: Soft Handovers Mobile located in the area of overlap of multiple base stations Transmission: – Uplink: No difference – Downlink: BSC/MSC sends out a copy of the same packet to each base station Reception: – Uplink: Each base station demodulates packet, BSC/MSC picks the “better packet” (macro-diversity combining) – Downlink: The mobile combines the signals using a Rake receiver (micro-diversity combining) Two power control loops

41. TI - 101141 Soft Handoff Procedure The mobile terminal maintains a list of pilot channels that it can hear and classifies them into four categories Active set – pilots currently used by the mobile terminal (up to three pilots can be used) Candidate set – pilots that are not in the active set, but have sufficient signal strength for demodulation Neighbour set – pilots of base stations of neighbouring cells that are indicated by the network through the paging channel Remaining set – all other possible pilots in the system Several thresholds are used by the mobile terminal to move pilots from one set to another

42. TI - 101142 Soft Handoff IS-95 specifies three basic types of soft handoff (a) Softer: handoff between two sectors of same cell (b) Soft: handoff between sectors of adjacent cells (c) Soft-softer: candidates for handoff include two sectors from the same cell and a sector from adjacent cell Disadvantages of Soft handoff –Call uses multiple traffic channels over air (increases interference and decreases capacity –Call uses multiple trunk in portion of wired network

43. TI - 101143 Power Control in IS-95 In CDMA, the “near-far” problem is very significant – As users transmit at the same time and frequency, a user close to the base station may drown the signal of a user far away from the base station To overcome this problem, power control is used – Open-loop power control Use a transmit power that is inversely proportional to the received signal strength from a base station – Closed-loop power control A power control bit is transmitted 800 times a second on the forward link (from BS to MS) The bit instructs the mobile station to either increase or decrease the power by 1 dB Power control also reduces the battery power consumption making the CDMA phones somewhat smaller than their TDMA counterparts

44. TI - 101144 Open Loop Power Control On the access channel, the MS sends a request using a weak signal if the pilot is strong ACK might not be received because the power was low If no ACK is received, a stronger access probe is transmitted This is continued a few times and then the attempt is stopped after a delay Max number of attempts is 15 to obtain a traffic channel Disadvantages: –Assumption is made that the forward and reverse link characteristics are identical –Slow response times (30ms) –Using the total power received from all BSs in calculation the required transmit power

45. TI - 101145 Closed Loop Power Control On the downlink traffic channel, a power control bit is transmitted every 1.25ms (800 times per second) A Zero bit indicates the MS to increase its transmit power A One bits indicates the MS to decrease its transmit power Inner- loop power control (Fast power control) Every 1.25ms, in the BS, the receiver determines the received SIR If the SIR is above a preset target, the MS is instructed to decrease its power by 1 dB If the SIR is not above a preset target, the MS is instructed to increase its power by 1 dB The control command is sent several times per frame (hence fast power control)

46. TI - 101146 Closed Loop Power Control (cont) Outer-loop power control (slow power control) Measures packet error rate – Changes target SIR for inner loop – Directly modify transmit power based on FER – Commands sent once per frame (hence slow power control)

47. TI - 101147 THE END

48. TI - 101148 THE END