1. Institute of Professional Studies School of Research and Graduate Studies Collecting Secondary and Primary Data Lecture Nine

2. Outline of Presentation  Introduction  Difference between Secondary and Primary data  Secondary data, Types, Sources and uses  Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data  Primary Data through Observation  Primary Data through Interviews  Primary Data through Questionnaires 2

3. Introduction In considering how to answer your research question(s) and objective(s), you probably will need to decide whether you will need use data that has been collected for some other purpose already or collect new data by yourself. While it may be possible to answer some research questions with secondary data or primary data alone, others may require both. 3

4. Difference between Secondary and Primary Data Primary data refers to data that is freshly collected for achieving the purpose of the current study while Secondary Data refers to data which was originally collected for a different purpose but it is being used for another purpose. The decision to use Primary or secondary data may be based on:  Availability  Accessibility  Suitability  Adequacy  Cost and benefits 4

5. Types of Secondary Data Secondary data may be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (non-numerical). It may also be Raw data, where there has been little or no processing, or Compiled data, where the data has received some form of processing or transformation. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhil (2007) have categorized secondary data into:  Documentary Secondary data  Survey-based secondary data and  Secondary data compiled from Multiple sources 5

6. Types of Secondary Data Cont’d Documentary Secondary Data are often used in research project that also use primary data collection methods. Documentary secondary data include written materials such as notices, correspondences, minutes of meetings, reports to shareholders, diaries, transcripts of speeches and administrative and public records. Documentary secondary data also include non-written materials such as voice and video recordings, pictures, drawings, films and television programmes. 6

7. Types of Secondary Data Cont’d Survey-based secondary data refers to data collected using a survey strategy usually by questionnaires that have already been analysed for their original purpose. Survey-based secondary data might have been collected through one of three distinct subtypes of survey strategies:  Censuses  Continuous and regular surveys  Ad hoc surveys 7

8. Types of Secondary Data Cont’d Censuses are usually carries out by governments and are unique because participation is obligatory. They provide very good coverage of the population survey. Continuous and regular surveys are those surveys, excluding censuses that are repeated over time. Ad hoc surveys are usually one-off surveys and are far more specific in their subject matter. They include data from questionnaires that have been undertaken by independent researchers as well as interviews undertaken by organizations and government 8

9. Types of Secondary Data Cont’d Multiple-source secondary Data can be based entirely on documentary or on survey secondary data, or a combination of the two. The key feature is that it is different data sets combined to form another data set prior to your accessing the data. Data from multiple sources could be combined to form  Time series data if the surveys have been repeated a number of times  Area-based if the surveys have the same geographical basis 9

10. Advantages of Secondary Data 1. May have fewer resource requirements 2. May be readily available and quicker to analyze 3. Longitudinal studies may be feasible 4. Can provide comparative data 5. Can result in unforeseen discoveries 6. permanence 10

11. Disadvantages of Secondary Data 1. May be collected for a purpose that does not match your need 2. Access may be difficult or costly 3. Aggregations and definitions may be unsuitable 4. No real control over data quality 5. Initial purpose may affect how data are presented 11

12. Primary Data collection Primary data may collected by:  Questionnaire  Interviews  Observation 12

13. Questionnaire Questionnaire is a prepared set of questions (or measures) to which respondents or interviewers record answers. Using questionnaire, the same set of questions are expected to answered by all the respondents. The design of the questionnaire will affect the response rate and the reliability and validity of the data you collect. To maximize response rate, reliability and validity: 1. Carefully design each question 2. Clearly layout the questionnaire form 3. Explain the purpose of the questionnaire 4. Pilot testing 5. Carefully plan and administered the questionnaire 13

14. Types of Questionnaires  Self-administered  Internet-mediated questionnaire  Postal questionnaire  Delivery and collection questionnaire  Interviewer-administered  Telephone questionnaire  Structured interview 14

15. Self-Completion or Interviewer Assisted Questionnaire?  Educational background.  Vocabulary level.  Prior experience in completing questionnaires.  Age.  Cultural issues. 15

16. Designing Questionnaire The design of each question should be determine by the data you need to collect. When designing each questions, researchers do one of three things:  Adopt questions used in other questionnaires  Adapt questions used in other questionnaires  Develop their own questions 16

17. Steps in Questionnaire Design Step 1: Initial Considerations Step 2: Clarification of Concepts Step 3: Typology of a Questionnaire Step 4: Pre-testing of a Questionnaire Step 5: Administering a Questionnaire 17

18. Questionnaire Design – Initial Considerations 18  Clarify the nature of the research problem and objectives  Develop research questions to meet research objectives  Define target population and sampling frame.  Determine sampling approach, sample size, and expected response rate.  Make a preliminary decision about the method of data collection.

19. Questionnaire Design – Clarification of Concepts  Ensure the concepts(s) can be clearly defined  Select the variables/indicators to represent the concepts  Determine the level of measurement. 19

20. Questionnaire Design – Typology of a Questionnaire  Determine the types of questions to include and their order.  Check the wording and coding of questions.  Decide on the grouping of the questions and the overall length of the questionnaire.  Determine the structure and layout of the questionnaire. 20

21. QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Two Types of Questions: 1. Open-ended. 2. Closed-ended. Open-ended Questions = place no constraints on respondents who are free to answer in their own words. Closed-ended Questions = respondent is given the option of choosing from a number of predetermined answers. 21

22. Open-ended Questions  Typically used in exploratory/qualitative studies.  Typically used in personal interview surveys involving small samples.  Allows respondent freedom of response.  Respondent must be articulate and willing to spend time giving a full answer.  Data is in narrative form which can be time consuming and difficult to code and analyze.  Possible researcher bias in interpretation.  Narrative can be analyzed using content analysis. Software is available. 22

23. Closed-end Questions Single Answer. Multiple Answer. Rank Order. Numeric. Likert-Type. Semantic Differential. 23

24. Closed-end Questions Typically used in quantitative studies. Assumption is researcher has knowledge to pre-specify response categories. Data can be pre-coded and therefore in a form amenable for use with statistical packages (e.g., SPSS, SAS) – data capture therefore easier. More difficult to design but simplifies analysis. Used in studies involving large samples. Limited range of response options. 24

25. Broad Considerations  Sequencing of questions.  Identification of concepts.  How many questions are required to capture each concept?  Question wording.  Overall length of questionnaire.  Placing of sensitive questions.  Ability of respondents.  Level of measurement.  Open-ended versus closed-end questions. 25

26. Questionnaire Sections 26 The relevant sections are: Classification Questions Research Topic Questions Opening Questions

27. Kinds of Questions Branching Questions are used to direct respondents to answer the right questions as well as questions in the proper sequence. Screening or Filter questions are used to ensure respondents included in the study are those that meet the pre-determined criteria of the target population. Rapport questions are used to establish rapport with the respondent by gaining their attention and stimulating their interest in the topic. 27

28. Preparing and Presenting Good Questions  Use simple words.  Be brief.  Avoid ambiguity.  Avoid leading questions.  Avoid double-barreled questions.  Be careful about question order and context effects.  Check questionnaire layout.  Prepare clear instructions 28

29. Avoid Position Bias Position Bias: “How important are flexible hours in evaluating job alternatives?” No Position Bias: “What factors are important in evaluating job alternatives?” 29

30. Avoid Double-barrelled Questions  To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements?  “Harrod’s employees are friendly and helpful.”  “Harrod’s employees are courteous and knowledgeable.” 30

31. Self-Completion Instructions The following issues typically are considered:  Introducing and explaining how to answer a series of questions on a particular topic.  Transition statements from one section (topic) of the questionnaire to another.  Which question to go to next (branching or skipping).  How many answers are acceptable, e.g., “Check only one response.” Or “Check as many as apply.”  Whether respondents are supposed to answer the question by themselves, or can consult another person or reference materials.  What to do when the questionnaire is completed, e.g., “When finished, place this in the postage paid envelope and mail it.” 31

32. Interviewer-Assisted Instructions The following issues typically are considered:  How to increase respondent participation?  How to screen out respondents that are not wanted and still keep them happy?  What to say when respondents ask how to answer a particular question?  When concepts may not be easily understood, how to define them?  When answer alternatives are to be read to respondents (aided response) or not to be read (unaided response)?  How to follow branching or skip patterns?  When and how to probe?  How to end the interview? 32

33. Questionnaire Design – Pre-testing of a Questionnaire  Determine the nature of the pretest for the preliminary questionnaire.  Analyze initial data to identify limitations of the preliminary questionnaire.  Refine the questionnaire as needed.  Revisit some or all of the above steps, if necessary. 33

34. Administering a Questionnaire  Identify the best practice for administering the type of questionnaire utilized.  Train and audit field workers, if required.  Ensure a process is in place to handle completed questionnaires.  Determine the deadline and follow-up methods. 34

35. Thank you 35