1. Lecture 4 Chapter 8: Secondary data Chapter 9: Primary data
For both qualitative and quantitative research projects
Chapter 9: Primary data
For mainly quantitative research projects
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2. Chapter 8: Secondary Data
Data that have already been collected for other purposes, perhaps processed and subsequently stored, are termed secondary data
Most research projects require some combination of secondary and primary data to answer research question(s) and meet the researcher’s objectives
Where can we get them? (Figure 8.1)
Other sources (refer to Tables 8.1 to 8.3, pp )
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3. Figure 8.1
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4. Using Secondary Data Secondary data can be used in a variety ways:
To provide the main data set;
To provide longitudinal (time-series data);
To provide area-based data;
To compare with, or set in context, research findings.
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5. Secondary Data (cont) Attention notes:
Any secondary data that are used will have been collected for a specific purpose
In addition, the secondary data are likely to be less current than any data collected by the researcher (why?)
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6. How to find it
Finding the secondary data required is a matter of detective work
It involves with:
Establishing whether the sort of data required are likely to be available;
Locating the precise data
(refer to Figure 8.1 for all possible sources)
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7. Suitability
Once located secondary data sources must be assessed to ensure their overall suitability for the research question(s) or objective(s)
In particular attention must be paid to the measurement validity and coverage of the data
How to evaluate?
Pros and Cons
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8. validity
Ensure that
Data match to what u need (since most data may not be measuring it up for what u wanted)
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9. coverage Ensure that (p264): Unwanted data are or can be excluded
Sufficient data remain for analyses to be undertaken once unwanted data have been excluded
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10. Suitability (cont) Criteria to use: (Figure 8.2) Note:
Reliability
Bias
Deliberate distortion of data inaccuracy (for either unintentionally or intentionally)
costs and benefits in comparison to alternative sources, such as time and financial resources and will it answer your research questions
Note:
when assessing costs and benefits it is important to remember that secondary data that are completely reliable and contain some bias are better than no data at all if they enable the research question(s) to be answered partially and objectives met
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12. Pros and Cons Pros (p257) May have fewer resource requirement
Unobtrusive
Longitudinal studies may be feasible
Provide comparative and contextual data
Result in unforeseen discoveries
Permanence of data
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Cons
May not match with what you need for your objective(s)
Access may be difficult/costly
Aggregation and definitions may be unsuitable
No real control over data quality
Initial purpose may affect how data are presented
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13. Chapter 9: Primary data
Here, we attempt to gain understanding the role that observation may play as data collection method in research design
Two types of observation:
Participant observation
Structured observation
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14. Participant observation
It is a method in which the researcher participates in the lives and activities of those whom they are studying
It may be used in a student placement, or the student may already be a member of an organization that will enable him or her to adopt the role of the practitioner-researcher
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15. Participant observation (cont)
Participant observation means that the research adopts a number of potential roles differentiated by the degree to which his or her identity is/is not concealed from the subjects of the research and the degree to which there is researcher participation in the events being studied
How it works? (Figure 9.1)
Which above method is a better?
Data analysis and its result validity (subject to biasness)
Pros and cons
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16. (Figure 9.1) 16 Observing how things Works in office with
Involvement in it, spying!
Unethical?
Observe and participate
With identify revealed
Observing without
Taking part in it, such
As exploratory study
Observe without participate
(Figure 9.1)
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17. Participant observation Influencing factors
Influencing factors (pp ):
The purpose of research
The time devotion
Degree to which you feel the suitability
Organizational access
Ethical considerations
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18. Participant observation Data Analysis
A prevalent form of data analysis used in here is analytic induction. (That is to establish what is going on)
This may lead to an initial hypothesis being re-developed more than once
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19. Pros and cons (pp 293, Table 9.1) Pros Cons
Good to explain “what is going on”
Provide insight to social process
Useful to organizational management
Practical real experience/feeling could be gathered
All data collected are mostly useful
Cons
Time consuming
Difficult to launch ethical dilemmas
May consist of “role of conflict” between being employee and researcher
Biasness may exit
Special skill may required
Difficulty to access organizations for participate
Data recording is difficult
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20. Structured observation
It is concerned with the frequency of events.
It is characterized by a high level of predetermined structure and quantitative analysis
It tells you how often things happened rather than why they happened
When to apply it?
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21. How to evaluating its validity and reliability?
Answer:
“Time-and-motion” study, data collected from streets/mkt
Pros and Cons
How to collect data ?
How to evaluating its validity and reliability?
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22. Structured Pros and Cons
(Table 9.2, p298)
Pros
Anyone can apply it after some training
Can be adopted in different locations for result comparison
Highly reliable results because it is actual event
Possible to record the relationship between events
Data cannot collected at time they occur then based on “second-hand” accounts
Secure data that might otherwise be ignored by participants
Cons
Observer must be in the setting when phenomena under study are taking place (ie at the site)
Results are limited to overt action or surface indicators
Data are slow and expensive to collect
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23. Structured observation (cont)
A choice may be made between “off the shelf” coding schedule and a schedule that is designed for the purpose of the particular piece of research
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24. Structured Observation Validity and Reliability
Treats :(p 301)
Subject error
Ensure subjects are performing normal routines
Time error
Ensure untypical time is not included in the observation
Observer effect
Ensure that the subjects are not conscious of being studied
Remedies: a) minimal interaction
b) habituation (ie adapted to it)
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