1. San Onofre Nuclear Power Plant
Ch. 22: Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear forces, and radioactive decay
Alpha, beta, and gamma particles
Transmutation, disintegration series, & carbon dating
Fission vs. fusion
Effects of radiation
San Onofre Nuclear Power Plant
San Clemente, CA
(61 miles south of Los Angeles)

2. Chemical reaction vs. Nuclear reaction
Nuclear chemistry: the chemistry of radioactive substances; study of the atomic nucleus, including fission and fusion and their products
Chemical reactions:
Atoms attain stable isotopes by losing or sharing electrons
Reactions affected by changes in temperature, pressure, or the presence of catalysts
Nuclear reactions:
The nuclei of unstable isotopes gain stability by undergoing changes
The changes are accompanied by emission of large amounts of energy

3. The Nucleus
Atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons, which are collectively called nucleons
In nuclear chemistry an atom is referred to as a nuclide and is identified by the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
Two types of notations: Radium-228 or 228Ra 88

4. Nuclear Reaction a reaction that affects the nucleus of an atom.
Occurs to increase stability
Give off large amounts of energy
Total of atomic #s & mass #s is equal on both sides of equation.
Identity of atom does not change till atomic # changes, When atomic #changes, the identity of element changes=transmutation

5. Natural Radioactivity
Discovered in 1896 by Antoine Henri Becquerel, who saw a uranium salt produce an image on a photographic film. The term radioactivity was coined in 1898 by Marie Curie, a Polish physicist, who was doing research with her husband Pierre. (They did much of the initial work on radioactivity, and eventually died of radiation-related illnesses.) Radioactive Decay: spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus into a slightly lighter & more stable nucleus, accompanied by emission of particles, electromagnetic radiation or both.
Wrapped photographic plate in lightproof covering and placed a uranium compound on top of it. The plate became exposed. Rays were produced by radioactive decay.

6. What determines the type of decay a radioisotope undergoes?
The nuclear force is an attractive force that acts between all nuclear particles that are extremely close together, such as protons and neutrons in a nucleus
At these short distances, the nuclear force dominates over electromagnetic repulsions and hold the nucleus together.
More than 1,500 different nuclei are known. Of those, only 264 are stable and do not decay or change with time. These nuclei are in a region called the band of stability.

7. Types of Radioactive Decay
Consists of
Stopped by
Interesting Fact
1. alpha A
He nucleus:
2 p & 2 n
Paper or skin
If ingested, is harmful to lungs
2. beta b
High energy e-
Clothing, glasses, or thin sheet of Al
Causes damage to sensitive tissues like eyes
3. gamma g
Photon (particle of light)
* Has essentially no mass (m < 5.81 x g…its complicated!)
A few feet of dirt or concrete, or 6” of Pb
Causes severe damage to body tissues

8. Alpha particle emissions:
Helium nucleus: 2 protons and 2 neutrons, +2 charge.
For large, unstable nucleus which needs to reduce both the number of protons and the number of neutrons.
Example:

9. Alpha emission

10. Beta particle emissions:
Electron emission, -1 charge.
For unstable nucleus which needs to reduce the number of neutrons.
A neutron is converted into a proton and an electron, the electron is given off as a beta particle.
Example:

11. Beta emission
Some of the tiny particles that exist and transform in nuclear reactions have various names such as neutrinos and quarks. This can lead to the discussion of matter and antimatter.

12. Positron emissions: Positron emission, +1 charge.
For unstable nucleus which needs to reduce the number of protons.
A proton is converted into a neutron and a positron, the positron is emitted.
Example:

13. Electron capture:
An inner orbit electron combines with a proton and forms a neutron.
For unstable nucleus which needs to reduce the number of protons.
Example:

14. Electron capture

15. Gamma emissions:
High energy electromagnetic waves (photons) like visible light, except with a shorter wavelength.
For high energy nucleus when it jumps down from an excited state to a ground state.
Example:

16. Gamma emission

17. 1. Using the examples above, write the reaction of bismuth-214 emitting an alpha particle
2. Write the reaction of silicon-27 emitting a beta particle

18. Half Life:
The time required for ½ the amount of a radioactive material to disintegrate.
Phosphorus-32 radioactively decays to form Sulfur-32
Half life 32P = 14 days

19. Time
amount
0 hours
1.0 mg
2.6 hours
0.5 mg
5.2 hours
0.25 mg
7.8 hours
0.125 mg
10.4 hours
mg (6.25x10-5 g)

20. Arificial Transmutation
First accomplished by Rutherford in 1919, even though alchemists tried for hundreds of years.
Transmutation of lead into gold was achieved by Glenn Seaborg, who succeeded in transmuting a small quantity of lead in He also first isolated plutonium for the atomic bomb and discovered/”created” many elements. (NY Times, Feb 1999)
There is an earlier report (1972) in which Soviet physicists at a nuclear research facility in Siberia accidentally discovered a reaction for turning lead into gold when they found the lead shielding of an experimental reactor had changed to gold.
Accomplished with particle accelerators like the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC)

21. Disintegration Series (Decay Series)
“Heavy” atoms (greater than Bismuth, #83) naturally decay to smaller atoms along a consistent path, or series, of decays.
Radioactive U-238 → Th a
Th-234 → Pa b
Pa-234 → U b
U-234 → Th a
Th-230 → Ra a
Ra-226 → Rn a
Rn-222 → Po a
Po-218 → Pb a
Pb-214 → Bi b
Bi-214 → Po b
Po-214 → Pb a
Pb-210 → Bi b
Bi-210 → Po b
Po-210 → Stable Pb a
Mass Number
Atomic Number & Symbol
Source:

22. Nuclear Fission
Fission: process in which the nucleus of a large, radioactive atom splits into 2 or more smaller nuclei
Caused by a collision with a energetic neutron.
Ba +
139 56
Kr + 94 36
3 n + energy 1 U
235 92
n + 1
A neutron is absorbed by a U-235 nucleus. The nucleus is now less stable than before. It then splits into 2 parts and energy is released. Several neutrons are also produced; they which may go on to strike the nuclei of other atoms causing further fissions.
Fission animation:

23. *In a fission reaction that is working properly, more than one neutron ejected from the fission reaction causes another fission to occur. This condition is known as supercriticality.
*The process of neutron capture and nucleus splitting happens very quickly (takes about 1 x seconds).
An incredible amount of energy is released:
As heat and gamma radiation
Because the product atoms and neutrons weigh less than the original U-235 atom; the “missing mass“ has been converted to energy by E=mc2

24. *A Fission Chain Reaction

25. Harnessing Fission: A nuclear power plant
Nuclear power plants utilize the energy released in a controlled fission reaction in the core to heat water in one pipe, which is used to vaporize water into steam in another pipe, which drives a turbine and generates electricity.
The vaporized H2O is in a closed circuit, and is never exposed to the radiation itself.
The speed of the fission chain reaction is regulated using carbon control rods which can absorb extra neutrons.

26. The Atomic Bomb
Uses an unregulated fission reaction in a very fast chain reaction that releases a tremendous amount of energy.
*Critical mass: the minimum amount of radioactive, fissionable material needed to create a sustainable fission chain reaction
* Site of fission reaches temperatures believed to be about 10,000,000°C.
Produces shock waves and a, b, g, x-rays, and UV radiation.

27. *The classic “mushroom cloud” is a result of dust and debris lifted into the air as a result of the detonation.
US Army aerial photograph from 80 km away, taken about 1 hour after detonation over Nagasaki, Japan, August 9, 1945.

28. Nuclear Fusion
Fusion: process in which 2 nuclei of small elements are united to form one heavier nucleus
Requires temperatures on the order of tens of millions of degrees for initiation.
The mass difference between the small atoms and the heavier product atom is liberated in the form of energy.
Responsible for the tremendous energy output of stars (like our sun) and the devastating power of the hydrogen bomb.
H + 3 1 H 2
He + 4 n
+ energy

29. *Stars & the Hydrogen Bomb
The first thermonuclear bomb was exploded in 1952 in the Marshall islands by the United States, the second was exploded by the Russia (then the USSR) in 1953.
“H bombs” utilize a fission bomb to ignite a fusion reaction.

30. Cold fusion Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons 1989 Univ. of Utah
Cold fusion lie

31. Mass-Energy Relationship
*The energy that can be released from 2 kg of highly enriched U-235 (as used in a nuclear bomb) is roughly equal to the combustion of a million gallons of gasoline. 2 kg of U-235 is smaller than a baseball; a million gallons of gasoline would fill a rectangular tank that is 50 feet per side.

32. Measurement of Radioactivity
ionizing radiation-
radiation from radioactive sources
When it strikes an atom or a molecule, one or more electrons are knocked off and an ion is created
Measured with a Geiger counter, film badge or a Scintillation counter
Curie-measures radioactivity emitted by a radionuclide.
Roentgen & Rad - measures exposure to gamma rays or X-rays
Rem- takes into account the degree of biological effect caused by the type of radiation exposure.

33. *Biological Effects of Radiation: Acute
Ionizing radiation: energy emitted from radioactive matter; it can directly affect (ionize) the structure of materials which it passes through, including human tissue.
*Biological Effects of Radiation: Acute
High level radiation (gamma ray & x–ray) causes death
Damage centered in the nuclei of the cells; cells that are undergoing rapid cell division most susceptible
Gamma rays from a Co-60 source are often used to treat cancer (cells that multiply rapidly)
*Effects of Radiation: Long Term
Long term exposure can weaken an an organism and lead to onset of malignant tumors, even after fairly long time delays.
Largest source: X–rays
Sr-90 isotopes are present in fallout from atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.
Contaminated foods can increase incidence of leukemia and bone cancers.