1. Psychology of Music Learning Miksza CREATIVITY

2. Hickey (2002) A creative product –One that is both novel (to its creator) and is “appropriate” or “valuable” in the context of a domain, and a creative person is one who produces creative products (p. 398) Creative thinking as a cognitive act connected to a tangible, albeit novel, product (p. 398)

3. Hickey (2002) Is creativity a general trait or content specific? Varied results of studies comparing various manifestations of creativity are in part the result of different measurement systems

4. Hickey (2002) History –Guilford (1950) address to the APA –Direct influence on Torrance (1996) and Tests of Creative Thinking Verbal and figural forms Fluency - quantity of responses Flexibility - different response categories Originality - unique relative to others Elaboration - details of response

5. Hickey (2002) Doig - pioneering work in music composition in the 1940’s –Cleveland Museum of Art Moorehead and Pond (1978) –Qualitative study of children’s music exploration Vaughan (1971), Gorder (1976), Webster (1977) –Empirically grounded attempts to measure musical creativity and creative thinking through music

6. Hickey (2002) General creativity –U-shaped developmental curve Early childhood: high; middle years: slump; adulthood: may emerge in more sophisticated form –May be due to environmental rather than ‘cognitive’ trends –Visual art - Gardner & Winner Childhood creativity may or may not predict adult creativity

7. Hickey (2002) Swanwick & Tillman (1986) –Cognitive development model Early mastery (0-4), imitation (4-9), imaginative play (10- 15), metacognition (15+) General move from an unusual/personal style to idiomatic creations But no data for children older than 11 Davies (1992) and Marsh (1995) –Children able to create complete and imaginative songs very early (e.g., by 5 yrs.)

8. Hickey (2002) Kratus (1989) –Systematic analysis of children’s compositions Exploration - unlike anything played earlier Development - similar (not identical) to music played earlier Repetition - the same as played earlier Silence –More varied strategy use in older children –More process-oriented thinking in younger children –More product-oriented thinking in older children

9. Hickey (2002) Assessment –Torrance TTCT dominated research General creativity –Webster’s Measurement of Creative Thinking in Music-II (1994) Parallel measurement approach in music –Both based on Guilford factors from much earlier Criticism - that while construct validity has been demonstrated, criterion validity is rare

10. Hickey (2002) Webster’s Measure of Creative Thinking in Music –Fluency, Flexibility, Originality, Syntax –Musical tasks: sponge ball on piano, pitched temple blocks, mic and amplifier –10 tasks in all, divided into - exploration, application, synthesis McPherson (1993) –Instrumental improvisation creativity rating scales Fluency, musical syntax, creativity, musical quality

11. Hickey (2002) Amabile (1996) –Consensual Assessment Technique Subjective assessments of products by experts in the particular domain Used by several researchers in music –Tends to yield reliable scores among independent judges Hickey (2000) –Most reliable judges of children’s compositions - their general music teachers (not composers, theorists, other children, or instrumental teachers)

12. Hickey (2002) Cognitive processes underlying creative thinking in music –Webster model (1987) –Dunn (1997) - listening –Hickey (1995) - low and high creative groups processes with MIDI composition High - more ideas, more exploration, whole composition appeared at some point –Daignault (1997) - similar to Hickey above

13. Hickey (2002) Creativity and aptitude –Generally no relationship –Supports construct validity Creativity and achievement –Results more mixed - depends on how ‘divergent’ the creativity measure truly is… Open-ended response and intrinsic motivation are optimal for creativity

14. Hickey (2002) Arts experiences and general creativity –Mixed results - some studies show that students with arts experiences score higher on creativity measures However experimental studies that take ‘creative’ teaching approaches tend to increase scores on creativity measures

15. Hickey (2002) Confluence approaches to creativity –Amabile, Csikszentmihalyi, Gardner, Sternberg –Moving beyond a solely cognitive and/or psychometric approach and including other socio-cultural factors

16. Hee Kim (2006) Creativity Testing –A psychometric approach –Traces lineage of Guilford to Torrance –In depth review of Torrance’s measures Reliability, validity, and normative info –Critique of limitations –Future directions for improvements

17. Sternberg (2006) A confluence approach to creativity The investment theory –Put in the least, get out the most –Need a combination of six personal resources Intellectual ability Knowledge Thinking style Personality Motivation Environment –More than a sum –May be thresholds or interactions

18. Sternberg (2006) Decision making important to consider Alternative assessment approaches (when compared with Guilford approach) Ideas for instruction to encourage creativity Types –Accept paradigms and attempt to extend Replication, redefinition, forward incrementation, advance forward incrementation –Rejects paradigms and attempt to replace Redirection, reconstruction, reinitiation –Synthesize paradigms Integration