1. Psychology 3306 Dr. D. Brodbeck

2. Introduction You knew it would start this way…. You knew it would start this way…. What is learning? What is learning? Many people think of things like: Many people think of things like: Kids in school Kids in school Studying Studying Disabilities etc Disabilities etc The study of Learning certainly has things to say about some of these things The study of Learning certainly has things to say about some of these things

3. What is learning? Talks about other things too: Talks about other things too: What cognitive constants there are across species What cognitive constants there are across species What cognitive differences there are across species What cognitive differences there are across species How do you make good rat poison How do you make good rat poison Do you only learn by doing or can you learn by observing? Do you only learn by doing or can you learn by observing? Lots of other stuff Lots of other stuff

4. What is learning OK, Dave, you have convinced us that there are a lot of issues, and lots of stuff that isn’t boring (?) but…. OK, Dave, you have convinced us that there are a lot of issues, and lots of stuff that isn’t boring (?) but…. WHAT IS LEARNING? WHAT IS LEARNING? OK, stop shouting OK, stop shouting Change resulting from experience Change resulting from experience Some event at time 1 affects behaviour at time 2 Some event at time 1 affects behaviour at time 2

5. What it is Both are pretty broad definitions Both are pretty broad definitions Pretty reasonable though Pretty reasonable though OK, so, specifically, what do psychologists that study learning study? OK, so, specifically, what do psychologists that study learning study? Basically there are two broad types of questions Basically there are two broad types of questions Those about process and those about the product Those about process and those about the product

6. Process How it happens How it happens What at time 1 leads to change at time 2 What at time 1 leads to change at time 2 How time 1 affect time 2 mechanistically How time 1 affect time 2 mechanistically Under what conditions do you get learning Under what conditions do you get learning Interval between stimuli for example Interval between stimuli for example Long for a taste aversion, short for eyeblink for example Long for a taste aversion, short for eyeblink for example

7. Product What are the long term changes in behaviour What are the long term changes in behaviour What are the short term changes in behaviour What are the short term changes in behaviour For example, what is the form of the CR in drug conditioning? For example, what is the form of the CR in drug conditioning? Why does a pigeon peck at a key in a classical conditioning paradigm? Why does a pigeon peck at a key in a classical conditioning paradigm?

8. Types of questions There are, of course, sub areas too There are, of course, sub areas too Acquisition Acquisition Learning versus performance Learning versus performance Different types of conditioning and learning Different types of conditioning and learning

9. Hold on… Different types of learning? Different types of learning? Well maybe Well maybe The search for general laws or a general process theory has been going on for almost 100 years, maybe a tad more The search for general laws or a general process theory has been going on for almost 100 years, maybe a tad more Driven by physics envy Driven by physics envy F=ma F=ma E=mc 2 E=mc 2 6.02 x 10 23 6.02 x 10 23

10. Umm, maybe this is crazy Think of biology Think of biology There is an overriding principle (evolution) There is an overriding principle (evolution) Many commonalities in how systems work Many commonalities in how systems work However, each species is different However, each species is different Perhaps it should be the same thing with learning, and in psychology in general Perhaps it should be the same thing with learning, and in psychology in general Correlations between events are important, could be the key thing in learning Correlations between events are important, could be the key thing in learning

11. Welcome to my laboratory.. (Insert evil laugh here) What about the notion that the lab is an artificial environment? What about the notion that the lab is an artificial environment? “Well sure, species X behaves like Y in the lab, and so does species Z, but, that’s in the lab, so it is not real behaviour” “Well sure, species X behaves like Y in the lab, and so does species Z, but, that’s in the lab, so it is not real behaviour” Oh shut up Oh shut up Looking at effects in isolation is the essence of experimentation Looking at effects in isolation is the essence of experimentation In order to control conditons In order to control conditons

12. There is nothing wrong with looking at stuff in the real world, let’s be clear on that There is nothing wrong with looking at stuff in the real world, let’s be clear on that It is a great place to test the generality of your finding It is a great place to test the generality of your finding Indeed, if something only happens in the lab, is it that interesting? Indeed, if something only happens in the lab, is it that interesting? It is a great place to get ideas It is a great place to get ideas Still, testing theories (which tend to be statements about cause and effect relationships) is best done under controlled conditions Still, testing theories (which tend to be statements about cause and effect relationships) is best done under controlled conditions

13. Causation To make causal inferences you need three things: To make causal inferences you need three things: 1) Covariation 1) Covariation 2) Temporal Precedence 2) Temporal Precedence 3) Elimination of alternative explanations 3) Elimination of alternative explanations Unless you satisfy all three of these you cannot say that X causes Y Unless you satisfy all three of these you cannot say that X causes Y

14. Judging Theories Theories must be falsifiable Theories must be falsifiable Must make precise enough predictions to be shown false Must make precise enough predictions to be shown false The simpler the theory the better The simpler the theory the better The more general the theory the better The more general the theory the better Fruitful theories are good theories Fruitful theories are good theories Theories make predictions Theories make predictions

15. Judging Theories That was not an exhaustive list That was not an exhaustive list Beware the Einstein syndrome Beware the Einstein syndrome So, how do we test theories? So, how do we test theories? Well, we have to collect data Well, we have to collect data

16. How do we collect data Anecdotes Anecdotes Can be useful for generating hypotheses Can be useful for generating hypotheses Lousy for testing theories Lousy for testing theories I know a guy who…. I know a guy who…. Observational approaches Observational approaches Need for operationism Need for operationism Example, Imprinting studies Example, Imprinting studies

17. More ways to test theories Correlation Correlation Still not causation Still not causation Which direction? Which direction? Experimentation Experimentation Vary one variable Vary one variable Observe the other Observe the other Hold all others constant Hold all others constant Watch out for confounds Watch out for confounds Placebo effects Placebo effects expectation expectation

18. More key points about experimentation Double blind procedures Double blind procedures Comparing groups Comparing groups Looking at change over time Looking at change over time Systematic replication Systematic replication Statistical methods are used to see if group differences are ‘real’ Statistical methods are used to see if group differences are ‘real’

19. Different approaches to learning Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist The true behaviourist deals only with the observable The true behaviourist deals only with the observable Behaviourists rarely use intervening variables Behaviourists rarely use intervening variables stimulusbehaviour Intervening variable

20. However…. Cognitive psychologists do not just toss intervening variables around carelessly Cognitive psychologists do not just toss intervening variables around carelessly Cognitive psychologists study representations Cognitive psychologists study representations Explain Suzuki et al, 1980 without any reference to a spatial representation Explain Suzuki et al, 1980 without any reference to a spatial representation You can’t You can’t

21. Cognition and behaviour Both cognitive and behaviourist psychologists study humans and non humans Both cognitive and behaviourist psychologists study humans and non humans We are animals We are animals Each species is different, though there are some overriding commonalities Each species is different, though there are some overriding commonalities

22. Ethics There are potential ethical issues There are potential ethical issues You can’t test animal learning with a tissue culture You can’t test animal learning with a tissue culture Rules are strict Rules are strict Some are actually ridiculous Some are actually ridiculous CCAC CCAC IACC IACC A – E rating A – E rating

23. Who pays for it? You do You do NSERC NSERC They pay between 10 and 60 K or so to qualified researchers They pay between 10 and 60 K or so to qualified researchers VERY competitive VERY competitive Pay for grad school for some Pay for grad school for some Postdocs Postdocs

24. Determinism and free will Many scientists are determinists Many scientists are determinists Me for example Me for example With enough data I can predict the future With enough data I can predict the future Hard to get all the date Hard to get all the date So, it feels like you have free will So, it feels like you have free will