1. Why Language is Significant Language is a key medium by which culture is transmitted Language is a key medium by which culture is transmitted Language reflects concepts and values (Wittgenstein: The limits of my language are the limits of my world) Language reflects concepts and values (Wittgenstein: The limits of my language are the limits of my world) Language is linked to behavior Language is linked to behavior Sometimes, language IS behavior Sometimes, language IS behavior

2. Descriptions and Evaluations Descriptions often mask value judgments Descriptions often mask value judgments Some descriptions ARE evaluations masquerading as descriptions—esp. abusive or discrediting descriptions: fascist, old-fashioned, godless, “bleeding- heart” Some descriptions ARE evaluations masquerading as descriptions—esp. abusive or discrediting descriptions: fascist, old-fashioned, godless, “bleeding- heart” Some words are both descriptive and evaluative: scientific, irrational, murder Some words are both descriptive and evaluative: scientific, irrational, murder

3. Connotations Words have both denotations (meaning) and connotations (associations) Words have both denotations (meaning) and connotations (associations) Consider the connotations of: atheist, conservative, poor, rural, educated Consider the connotations of: atheist, conservative, poor, rural, educated Resignification as a means of enacting conceptual and social change Resignification as a means of enacting conceptual and social change

4. Asymmetrical Descriptions Involves describing a feature in oneself and in others in ways that evaluate that feature differently based on connotations Involves describing a feature in oneself and in others in ways that evaluate that feature differently based on connotations Faithful v. Fanatic Faithful v. Fanatic Open-Minded v. Wishy-Washy Open-Minded v. Wishy-Washy Religion v. Sect v. Cult Religion v. Sect v. Cult

5. Appeal to Cultural Norms or Paradigms In psychology, a Paradigm is similar to a stereotype; a paradigm of ‘bird’ would be a concept of what an ideal bird is like In psychology, a Paradigm is similar to a stereotype; a paradigm of ‘bird’ would be a concept of what an ideal bird is like To appeal to a cultural norm or paradigm is to use language that convinces by association, where those associations involve psychological paradigms or cultural practices To appeal to a cultural norm or paradigm is to use language that convinces by association, where those associations involve psychological paradigms or cultural practices Ex: Abortion stops a beating heart Ex: Abortion stops a beating heart Ex: If guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns Ex: If guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns

6. Hyperbole Deliberate exaggeration used to persuade or motivate without reasons Deliberate exaggeration used to persuade or motivate without reasons In a way, a kind of fallacy of presumption: makes unwarranted assumptions about degree In a way, a kind of fallacy of presumption: makes unwarranted assumptions about degree Can also be a fallacy of relevance: a kind of ad misericordiam Can also be a fallacy of relevance: a kind of ad misericordiam Especially watch for “always” and “never” claims Especially watch for “always” and “never” claims

7. Hypostatizing Involves treating an abstraction or generality as if it were a concrete thing Involves treating an abstraction or generality as if it were a concrete thing Examples: The American Way of Life, The Family, The Jews (see Lang’s essay), The West Examples: The American Way of Life, The Family, The Jews (see Lang’s essay), The West Watch for words that identify something whose meaning is vague or questionable: Freedom, Democracy, Love, God Watch for words that identify something whose meaning is vague or questionable: Freedom, Democracy, Love, God Often involves ignoring differences within groups: Liberals, Conservatives, The Religious Right, Islam, Christianity Often involves ignoring differences within groups: Liberals, Conservatives, The Religious Right, Islam, Christianity

8. False Consensus We tend to systematically overestimate the degree to which others are in agreement with us We tend to systematically overestimate the degree to which others are in agreement with us This leads us to treat personal beliefs and experiences as if they were universal This leads us to treat personal beliefs and experiences as if they were universal Watch for unwarranted “we” and “our” language Watch for unwarranted “we” and “our” language

9. Deceptive Euphemisms (or Deceptive Neologisms) Terminology used to misrepresent what is actually the case Terminology used to misrepresent what is actually the case Often used to “sanitize” a practice Often used to “sanitize” a practice Ex: Camus on execution Ex: Camus on execution Ex: Nazi language Ex: Nazi language