1. How and When is Language Possible?

2. How is Language Possible? Theories… Theories… Defining language… Defining language… Primates… Primates… Humans… Humans… When is language possible?… When is language possible?… How is language possible?…. How is language possible?….

3. Theories About Beginnings Early speculative theories Early speculative theories – philosophical 1700s: gestures, social contracts 1700s: gestures, social contracts 1800s: imitations, emotions, natural sounds, group work 1800s: imitations, emotions, natural sounds, group work – Bow wow, ouch, ding dong, yo-he-ho – 1866 Linguistic Society of Paris bans discussions Contemporary data-based theories Contemporary data-based theories – anthropological, holistic using all four subfields of anthropology. using all four subfields of anthropology.

4. Contemporary Theories Theoretical linguistics: Theoretical linguistics: – Still speculative Language too complicated to have evolved over time Language too complicated to have evolved over time Language developed all at once and is innate feature in humans Language developed all at once and is innate feature in humans Children born with universal grammar Children born with universal grammar – Only need to acquire specifics Linguistic anthropology: Linguistic anthropology: – Uses all four fields of anthropology Language too complicated to have developed all at once Language too complicated to have developed all at once Language probably evolved slowly along with culture Language probably evolved slowly along with culture Children born with ability to learn language Children born with ability to learn language – Learning takes place in social situations.

5. Defining Language LanguageCommunication SendingYesYes ReceivingYesPossible RespondingYesPossible Socially learned YesNo Complex grammar YesNo Lies, games, etc. YesNo

6. Defining Language Hockett’s Design Features of language Hockett’s Design Features of language – 1960s – Defining what is unique to humans – Thirteen features Four are unique to human language. Four are unique to human language.

7. Design Features of Language Not Unique to Humans Vocal/auditory channel Vocal/auditory channel Broadcast transmission / directional reception Broadcast transmission / directional reception Rapid fading Rapid fading Interchangeability Interchangeability Total feedback Total feedback Specialization Specialization Semanticity Semanticity Arbitrariness Arbitrariness Discreteness Discreteness

8. Design Features of Language Unique to Humans (according to Hockett) Displacement Displacement Productivity Productivity Traditional transmission Traditional transmission Duality of patterning Duality of patterning – / k + æ + t + s /.

9. Design Features and the Emergence of Human Language The idea of blending The idea of blending – Combining calls to establish productivity – Starting from closed calls (limited, specific) A + B = A + B A + B = A + B – danger + food = danger + food – Moving to blended calls (prelanguage) A + B = AB A + B = AB – danger + food = dangerous food – breakfast + lunch = brunch – Making duality of patterning possible Isolation of units for recombining Isolation of units for recombining – A + B + C = ABC, CBA, BAC, ACB – /kæts, ækts, skæt, tæks, æskt/.

10. Primate Communication Experiments: Experiments: – Chimpanzees Chimpanzees – Gorillas Gorillas – Bonobos (video) Bonobos What this tells us about language What this tells us about language – Duality of patterning is uniquely human What it tells us about language origins What it tells us about language origins – Pre-language abilities of humans and other primates probably similar.

11. Children and Language 3 days – recognizing parents’ sounds 3 days – recognizing parents’ sounds 3 months – cooing, playing with intonation 3 months – cooing, playing with intonation 6 months – babbling, playing with sounds 6 months – babbling, playing with sounds – 9 months – beginning signs 1 year – recognizable spoken words 1 year – recognizable spoken words 15 months – naming “explosion” 15 months – naming “explosion” 2 years – simple sentences, displacement 2 years – simple sentences, displacement Then – negatives, questions, clauses. Then – negatives, questions, clauses.

12. Theories about Language in Children Innatist theories Innatist theories – Language hard-wired in brain Language acquisition device helps w adjustments Language acquisition device helps w adjustments Behaviorist theories Behaviorist theories – Stimulus and reward Doesn’t explain “mouses” Doesn’t explain “mouses” Cognitivist theories Cognitivist theories – Concepts come first Research suggests simultaneity Research suggests simultaneity The theory theory (active construction of a grammar theory) The theory theory (active construction of a grammar theory) – Children observe and build theories Different languages - different theories? Different languages - different theories? – Korean vs English, verbs vs nouns.

13. Anthropological Observations Ochs and Schieffelin Ochs and Schieffelin Stress ethnographic field studies of children Stress ethnographic field studies of children Language learned in social settings. Language learned in social settings. – Encouragement by adults is not universal – Baby talk is not universal Becoming part of a speech community Becoming part of a speech community – Learning how and when to use language Ideas about language learning Ideas about language learning – Bilingualism vs monolingualism – Can adults learn more languages? Adult impatience Adult impatience Classwork vs fieldwork. Classwork vs fieldwork.

14. WHEN is Language Possible? Connected to HOW Connected to HOW Involves research into brain… Involves research into brain… And vocal tract… And vocal tract… And origins of culture…. And origins of culture….

15. The Human Brain Cortex Cortex – The convoluted surface of the brain – Two millimeters thick – Surface area 1.5 square yards – Contains 100 million neurons Oldest part of cortex Oldest part of cortex – Controls long term memory – And emotion Newer part of cortex Newer part of cortex – “Neocortex” – Controls language – 80% of human brain – Divided (by sulci) into lobes Frontal Temporal Parietal Occipital.

16. Lateralization & Language Left hemisphere Left hemisphere – association – calculation – analysis – language Right hemisphere Right hemisphere – touch – space – music – contexts for language use Two cerebral hemispheres Connected by corpus callosum

17. Language Areas of the Brain Broca’s area Broca’s area – Clarity of speech – Function words – Some word order Wernicke’s area Wernicke’s area – Understanding words – Producing sentences.

18. The Fossil Record Koobi Fora, Kenya Koobi Fora, Kenya – Broca’s & Wernicke’s areas present In Homo habilis 1.8-2 mya In Homo habilis 1.8-2 mya But not in Australopithecus (Paranthropus) But not in Australopithecus (Paranthropus) 1.26-1.8 mya

19. The Human Vocal Tract Lowering of the larynx Lowering of the larynx – Where vocal cords are located Lengthening of the pharynx Lengthening of the pharynx – More space for tongue – Increased vowel resonance Differentiation of vowels: [i] [a] [u] Differentiation of vowels: [i] [a] [u] Human infants born with high larynx Human infants born with high larynx – Begins to lower at three months – Reaches adult location by 3-4 years Except in adult males: further descent at adolescence. Except in adult males: further descent at adolescence.

20. The Fossil Record Evidence from basicranium Evidence from basicranium – Where muscles attach – More curved = lower larynx Australopithecus (1.5 mya) not curved Australopithecus (1.5 mya) not curved Homo habilis (2 mya) no data Homo habilis (2 mya) no data Homo erectus (1.6 mya) some curve Homo erectus (1.6 mya) some curve Premodern Humans (400,000 ya) definite curve Premodern Humans (400,000 ya) definite curve Modern Homo sapiens (125,000 ya) ditto Modern Homo sapiens (125,000 ya) ditto BUT Neanderthal (130,000 ya) somewhat different. BUT Neanderthal (130,000 ya) somewhat different.

21. Origins of Culture Associating language with complex tools Associating language with complex tools – evolution of tool design provides clues complexity of Upper Paleolithic tools complexity of Upper Paleolithic tools – requires description (vs imitation) Associating language with cultural complexity Associating language with cultural complexity – art, music, ritual, cooperative hunting/childcare.

22. Archaeology and The Fossil Record Robust forms of Australopithecus (1.5 mya) tool use? Robust forms of Australopithecus (1.5 mya) tool use? Homo habilis (2 mya) Stone Tools Homo habilis (2 mya) Stone Tools Homo erectus (1.8 mya) bifacial tools, organized hunting? Homo erectus (1.8 mya) bifacial tools, organized hunting? Premodern Humans (400,000 ya) shelters Premodern Humans (400,000 ya) shelters Modern Homo sapiens (200,000 ya) increased tool complexity Modern Homo sapiens (200,000 ya) increased tool complexity Neanderthal (130,000 ya) burials, music. Neanderthal (130,000 ya) burials, music.

23. Tools and Language? Language and complex behaviors Language and complex behaviors – Remembering steps – Transmitting instructions (teaching and learning) Mirror Neurons Mirror Neurons Italian researchers were studying motor neurons in F5 area of macaque brains – seemed to find motor activity almost formed a kind of “vocabulary” when - Italian researchers were studying motor neurons in F5 area of macaque brains – seemed to find motor activity almost formed a kind of “vocabulary” when - They found, by accident, that certain neurons not only “fire” when the animal engages in motor action, but fire when observing others engage in the same action. F5 area is in same location as Broca’s area in humans! They found, by accident, that certain neurons not only “fire” when the animal engages in motor action, but fire when observing others engage in the same action. F5 area is in same location as Broca’s area in humans! So, learning and observing tool making may be similar to learning language. So, learning and observing tool making may be similar to learning language.

24. Putting it all Together Using all four fields of anthropology: Using all four fields of anthropology: – Culture (tools) possible 2.5 mya, early H. habilis – Signed language possible 2mya, H. habilis – Spoken language possible 125,000 ya, H. sapiens; perhaps much earlier.

25. Somehow, Closed Systems Became Open Systems How do you open a closed call/sign system? How do you open a closed call/sign system? – Through blending (Hockett) Situations requiring communicating two ideas [dangerous food] Situations requiring communicating two ideas [dangerous food] – Through play? (Ottenheimer) Mimicking, pretending, discovering symbolism Mimicking, pretending, discovering symbolism How do you discover/use duality of patterning? How do you discover/use duality of patterning? – Through identifying discrete recombinable units Also through play? Also through play? – Playing with symbols – Playing with language  Shintiri, other Pig Latins.