1. The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology Chapter 8 How and When is Language Possible? 1

2. How is Language Possible? Theories… Defining language… Primates… Humans… When is language possible?… How is language possible?…. 2

3. Theories About Beginnings Early speculative theories – philosophical 1700s: gestures, social contracts 1800s: imitations, emotions, natural sounds, group work – Bow wow, ouch, ding dong, yo-he-ho – 1866 Linguistic Society of Paris bans discussions Contemporary data-based theories – anthropological, holistic using all four subfields of anthropology 3

4. Contemporary Theories Theoretical linguistics: – Still speculative Language too complicated to have evolved over time Language developed all at once and is innate feature in humans Children born with universal grammar – Only need to acquire specifics Linguistic anthropology: – Uses all four fields of anthropology Language too complicated to have developed all at once Language probably evolved slowly along with culture Children born with ability to learn language – Learning takes place in social situations 4

5. Defining Language LanguageCommunication SendingYes ReceivingYesPossible RespondingYesPossible Socially learnedYesNo Complex grammarYesNo Lies, games, etc.YesNo 5

6. Defining Language Hockett’s Design Features of language – 1960s – Defining what is unique to humans – Thirteen features Four are unique to human language 6

7. Design Features of Language Not Unique to Humans Vocal/auditory channel Broadcast transmission / directional reception Rapid fading Interchangeability Total feedback Specialization Semanticity Arbitrariness Discreteness 7

8. Design Features of Language Unique to Humans (according to Hockett) Displacement Productivity Traditional transmission 8

9. And the most significant Duality of patterning – Discrete units at one level can be combined to create different kinds of units at a different level / k, æ, t, s /  kæts, skæt, tæks, tæsk – Critical, according to Hockett, in distinguishing between human language and other forms of communication – Thought by Hockett to be the last to emerge in the evolution of language 9

10. Design Features and the Emergence of Human Language The idea of blending – Combining calls to establish productivity – Starting from closed calls (limited, specific) A + B = A + B – danger + food = danger + food – Moving to blended calls (prelanguage) A + B = AB – danger + food = dangerous food – breakfast + lunch = brunch – Making duality of patterning possible Isolation of units for recombining – A + B + C = ABC, CBA, BAC, ACB – /kæts, ækts, skæt, tæks, æskt/ 10

11. Primate Communication Experiments: – Chimpanzees Chimpanzees – Gorillas Gorillas – Bonobos (video) Bonobos What this tells us about language – Duality of patterning is uniquely human What it tells us about language origins – Pre-language abilities of humans and other primates probably similar 11

12. Children and Language 3 days – recognizing parents’ sounds 3 months – cooing, playing with intonation 6 months – babbling, playing with sounds – 9 months – beginning signs 1 year – recognizable spoken words 15 months – naming “explosion” 2 years – simple sentences, displacement Then – negatives, questions, clauses 12

13. Theories about Language in Children Innatist theories – Language hard-wired in brain Language acquisition device helps w adjustments Behaviorist theories – Stimulus and reward Doesn’t explain “mouses” Cognitivist theories – Concepts come first Research suggests simultaneity The theory theory – Children observe and build theories Different languages - different theories? – Korean vs. English, verbs vs. nouns 13

14. Anthropological Observations Ochs and Schieffelin Stress ethnographic field studies of children Language learned in social settings. – Encouragement by adults is not universal – Baby talk is not universal Becoming part of a speech community – Learning how and when to use language Ideas about language learning – Bilingualism vs. monolingualism – Can adults learn more languages? Adult impatience Classwork vs. fieldwork 14

15. WHEN is Language Possible? Connected to HOW Involves research into brain… And vocal tract… And origins of culture…. 15

16. Physical requirements for (Human) Language Brain architecture – Lateralization – language on left (mostly) – Broca’s area – production of words – Wernicke’s area – production of sentences Homo habilis as first brain with Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas Basic human language perhaps 1.8-2 million years old 16

17. The Human Brain Cortex – The convoluted surface of the brain – Two millimeters thick – Surface area 1.5 square yards – Contains 100 million neurons Oldest part of cortex – Controls long term memory – And emotion Newer part of cortex – “Neocortex” – Controls language – 80% of human brain – Divided (by sulci) into lobes Frontal Temporal Parietal Occipital 17

18. Lateralization & Language Left hemisphere – association – calculation – analysis – language Right hemisphere – touch – space – music – contexts for language use Two cerebral hemispheres Connected by corpus callosum 18

19. Language Areas of the Brain Broca’s area – Clarity of speech – Function words – Some word order Wernicke’s area – Understanding words – Producing sentences 19

20. The Fossil Record Koobi Fora, Kenya – Broca’s & Wernicke’s areas present In Homo habilis 1.8-2 mya But not in Australopithecus 1.26-1.8 mya: 20

21. The Human Vocal Tract Lowering of the larynx – Where vocal cords are located Lengthening of the pharynx – More space for tongue – Increased vowel resonance Differentiation of vowels: [i] [a] [u] Human infants born with high larynx – Begins to lower at 3 months – Reaches adult location by 3–4 years Except in adult males: further descent at adolescence 21

22. Evidence from the fossil record Evidence from basicranium – Where muscles attach – More curved = lower larynx Australopithecus (1.5 mya) not curved Homo habilis (2 mya) no data Homo erectus (1.6 mya) some curve Early Homo sapiens (400,000 ya) definite curve Homo sapiens sapiens (125,000 ya) ditto Neanderthal (130,000 ya) no curve. 22

23. Origins of Culture Associating language with complex tools – evolution of tool design provides clues complexity of Upper Paleolithic tools – requires description (vs imitation) Associating language with cultural complexity – art, music, ritual, cooperative hunting/childcare 23

24. The Fossil Record Australopithecus (1.5 mya) first stone tools Homo habilis (2 mya) control of fire Homo erectus (1.6 mya) organized hunting? Early Homo sapiens (400,000 ya) shelters, burials Homo sapiens sapiens (125,000 ya) knitting, basketweaving Neanderthal (130,000 ya) burials, music. 24

25. Putting it all Together Using all four fields of anthropology: – Culture (tools) possible 2.5 mya, early H. habilis – Signed language possible 2mya, H. habilis – Spoken language possible 125,000 ya, H. sapiens. 25

26. HOW Is Language Possible? How do you open a closed call/sign system? – Through blending (Hockett) Situations requiring communicating two ideas [dangerous food] – Through play? (Ottenheimer) Mimicking, pretending, discovering symbolism How do you discover/use duality of patterning? – Through identifying discrete recombinable units Also through play? – Playing with symbols – Playing with language » Shintiri, other Pig Latins 26

27. Thought as you leave If you had to convince a visitor from another planet that you were sentient, how would you go about it? Do you think that an alien would recognize human language as a key element of what it is to be human? Why/why not? 27

28. Next: Change and Choice – Read: Textbook Chapter 9 Workbook/Reader: – Hill (pp. 173-193) – Prepare to do: Writing/Discussion Exercises (W/R p. 195-200) Practice with Languages (W/R pp. 201-204) Language Creating (W/R p. 211) Conversation partnering (W/R p. 212) 28