1. Historical Implications

2. Ancient Societies Socrates (469-399 BC) Purpose of education = develop an individuals inherent knowledge and his ability to reason. Society is only as good as its schools. Socratic method = (inquiry method) – through a questioning process, based on student’s experiences and analyzing the consequences of responses, he led the student to a better understanding of the problem.

3. Ancient Societies Plato – Father of Idealism State should operate the educational system. Purpose of schools = to discover and develop the abilities of the individual, to aid the individual in discovering the knowledge of truth that is within each of us, and to prepare the individual for his or her role in society. Leadership by intelligence – absolute truth is within the mind.

4. Ancient Societies Aristotle Created the scientific method of inquiry Scientific realism Teach logic as a formal discipline Purpose of education = development of the intellect by the use of inductive and deductive reasoning. Also to produce good people and good citizens. Core knowledge

5. Ancient Societies Quintilian (35-95 AD) Roman educator Purpose of education = developing the person’s whole intellectual and moral nature. Public schools, not at home with private tutors Learning from the successes and failures of others No corporal punishment

6. Middle Ages Thomas Aquinas Scholasticism Reconcile religion with rationalism of Aristotle Man is composed of both a spiritual and physical nature. Man can arrive at truth through deductive processes, but when rationalism fails, man must rely on faith. These truths complement one another. Curriculum = theology and liberal arts.

7. Renaissance Erasmus (1466-1536) Humanistic philosophy Follower of Quintilian Necessity of understanding the student’s individual needs and abilities.

8. Reformation Catholics vs. Protestants Protestants Authority of the Bible over the Church Stressed the responsibility of each person for his own salvation (each person must be able to read and be educated) Vernacular schools

9. Reformation Martin Luther (1483-1546) Every child should have a free education It should be supported and controlled by the state Core knowledge, vocational training, spiritual development Secondary schools Universities

10. Reformation John Calvin (1509-1564) Similar to Martin Luther Two track system = common schools for the masses and secondary schools teaching the classical, humanist curriculum for the preparation of the leaders of the church and state.

11. Reformation Reformation in England The Jesuits = Training of teachers.

12. Later European Thought Enlightenment (age of reason & scientific inquiry) Francis Bacon scientific inquiry critical thinking skills (through the senses) utopia John Locke Tabula rasa Exercise the mind beyond the 3 R’s

13. Later European Thought Rousseau (1712-1778) Naturalism Father of modern psychology Children are naturally good, it is society that corrupts. Curriculum that is child-centered, developmentally appropriate, and allows for freedom. Child is to learn directly through his/her senses. Students are not punished Education progresses when the child is ready and his interests motivate him. Every student is taught a trade to prepare them for an occupation in life.

14. Later European Thought Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827) Put Rousseau’s theories into practice. Influenced American educators with Rousseau’s ideas. More than Rousseau, he recognized the importance of human emotions (self respect & security) in the learning process. Instruction should begin with concrete and proceed to abstract. (at learner’s pace)

15. Later European Thought Johann Herbart (1776-1841) Purpose of education should be the development of the moral character. Systematic steps of instruction: Preparation Presentation Association Generalization Application

16. Later European Thought Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) Established the first Kindergarten Provided the first theoretical basis for early childhood education. Agreed with Pestalozzi on child-centered instruction, but wanted to focus more on child development through activity and self-expression. Activity Curriculum Miniature Societies

17. Education in the 19 th & 20 th Centuries Horace Mann Father of American Education Spokesperson for the common school movement (State System & State Board of Education) Influenced educational legislation throughout the United States Established the normal schools

18. Education in the 19 th & 20 th Centuries Catherine Beecher Need for female teachers Nationwide system of teacher training Established a nationwide consensus of a new female role in education

19. Education in the 19 th & 20 th Centuries The Committee of Ten Curriculum? NEA established the Committee of Ten Early introduction to the basic concepts Four curricula were proposed: classical, Latin- scientific, modern language, and English College preparatory courses for both college- bound and terminal students. Observation, memory, expression, & reasoning

20. Education in the 19 th & 20 th Centuries The Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education Objectives of the high school curriculum: Health Command of fundamental academic skills Worthy home membership Vocational preparation Citizenship Worthwhile use of leisure time Ethical character

21. Normal Schools Institutions for specific training of teachers Teachers should be female ($) Prerequisite = elementary education Course of study = 1-2years Core knowledge in elementary schools Methods of teaching Educational psychology Classroom management Model school (lab school)

22. John Dewey Progressive Education Not subject-centered curriculum, but child- centered. Preferred method = Problem-solving Instruction centered around student motivation. Should not only focus on the intellectual, but also on the social, emotional and physical needs of the child.

23. Child Study vs. Measurement Movement Child Study Movement = emotional growth and personality Child as an evolving organism Measurement Movement = intelligence scale (comparison of intelligence to a norm) Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

24. George C. Counts Social reconstructivism – schools should take the lead in planning for an intelligent reconstruction of society. Socialism & Communism?

25. Montessori Movement Froebel (early childhood) > all students Sensory training Use of didactic materials, learning episodes, and physical exercises in a structured environment Interest & motivation are the focus of the methods Role of the teacher = be aware of the child’s readiness to learn, make sure the child has the materials to learn, and guide the child through experiences

26. Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka End of legalized segregation Civil Rights Act of 1964 End segregation in public facilities, attack discrimination in employment, and require nondiscriminatory practices in programs and institutions receiving federal funds.

27. 1980’s Reagan Economic competition Higher Standards State (Nation at Risk) and Local level (Restructuring)

28. 1990’s National Goals Political Agenda Goals 2000 (Federal Partnership) Shift of emphasis – from educational inputs to educational outcomes, from procedural accountability to educational accountability Ensuring all students access to high quality educational programs rather than providing supplemental services.

29. 1990’s Pressure Cooker: IDEA Culture and Curriculum Wars High Stakes Testing Baby Boom Echo Teacher Shortage ^ # of Teachers & ^ Standards for Teachers?

30. 1990’s Republican takeover of Congress Rights of parents? School choice funded at public expense. Greater local control over curriculum content and materials Competition would do what regulation had failed to do. Big Business?

31. 2000-2010 REGULATION School Choice? Economic Turn