1. Site Characteristics Location: Latitude and longitude or other standard system; Township, range, section; meets and bounds. From map or Geo-positioning system (GPS). Climate: Temperature (annual and seasonal), rainfall (annual and distribution), potential evapotranspiration; impact on soil use and soil development Vegetation: type, species, etc. Describe in as much detail as possible. Historic vegetation impact on soil development Land Use: cropland, forest land, rangeland, etc. Physiographic province: Piedmont, Coastal Plain, Ridge and Valley, etc Landscape: slope gradient, slope shape, aspect, land form, landscape postion Parent material: type, relation to landscape

2. GA Major Land Resource Areas (MLRA)

3. Geomorphic Surface floodplain (natural levee or back swamp) low terrace high terrace upland dune alluvial fan moraine many others Floodplain Terraces Upland

4. Geomorphic Position headslope, noseslope, sideslope convergent slopes collect runoff and shallow subsurface flow, i.e. wetter parts of the landscape divergent slopes shed runoff and shallow subsurface flow, i.e. drier parts of the landscape.

5. Site Characteristics - Slope Percent (or degrees) Shape - both parallel and perpendicular to contours - convex, plane, or concave impacts land stability, runoff and erosion, and hydrology Aspect - compass point or degrees impacts temperature and associated ET cooler, wetter soils on north and east facing slopes

6. Hillslope Position In humid climates, hillslopes are normally recognized to have 5 components, summit, shoulder, backslope, footslope, and toeslope. Hydrology, soil development, erosion, and parent material are often affected by hillslope position.  Summit – most stable position; may be wet (flat) or dry (convex)  Shoulder – convex position; most erosive, dry, least developed soils  Backslope – more stable than shoulder?; upper part dry; lower part wet  Footslope – concave position; may have colluvial parent material; wet soils  Toeslope – commonly alluvial parent materials; often wet soils (same as “bottom”)

7. Parent Material Residuum Transported  Alluvium  Marine sediments  Lacustrine deposits  Volcanic ash  Loess  Eolian sand  Glacial drift (till, outwash, various landforms)  Colluvium  Organic (peat, muck)

8. Tetonic Landscapes All continents are part of crustal plates and have two common components:  Cratons - expansive, stable regions of low relief typically in the central part of the continent Stable is key word – little uplift or metamorphism Old soils on old landscapes Glaciation creates new younger landscapes  Folded linear mountain belts - common on the margins of continents Occurrence related to current or past collisions of plates Rocks are typically extensively metamorphosed with intrusions of igneous rocks Relief is high High rates of erosion prevent development of very mature soils

9. Craton: stable continental core Orogenic belt: margin subject to tectonic forces (mt-building) Coastal plain: transient zone of deposition

10. Generalized geology of the eastern continental margin

11. Residual Parent Materials -- Mineral composition of rock has major effect on rate, degree, and end result (soil properties) during weathering > “mafic” vs. “felsic” igneous rocks: large effect of soil development (clay content and mineralogy, permeability, leaching, etc.) > sandstone vs. shale: coarse vs. fine textured soils -- Permeability/porosity of rock also a factor > fractured vs. intact rock (meta vs. intrusives in Piedmont) > limestone (porous) vs. shales (laminar, rel. impermeable)

12. Fluvial Landforms Channel deposits  Coarse grained Overbank deposits  Texture varies across the floodplain Both mineralogy and particle size of deposits depend on properties of the material in the watershed

13. Stream Terraces Highest elevation terrace is the oldest and the terraces become progressively younger as elevation decreases.

14. Glacial Landforms Climate change is the rule rather than the exception Continental glaciers that covered much of the high latitude regions of the earth during ice ages Sculpted most of the landforms in these areas Drive wide variations in sea level (low during Ice Ages) Wide variety of landforms, and glacial deposits widely variable Outwash: water-sorted, deposited during melt (glacial retreat) Till - material pushed, churned, and modified under the glacial ice  Poorly sorted with particle sizes that range from clay to boulders  Composition depends on what was present in the path of the glacier

15. Limit of Glaciation in North America

16. Loess Silty aeolian materials Seasonal changes in amount of meltwater from glaciers results in broad floodplains covered with fresh sediment and no vegetation Sediment was entrained by wind and deposited in the adjacent uplands  Eolian sand near floodplain  Silt and clay farther away Loess deposits are extensive and blankets existing landforms Thickness decreases with distance away from the river source Age of soils on loess and other glacial landforms about same age as deposits ~ 12,000 ybp

17. Loess

18. Marine Deposits Deposits actually deposited at the sea-land interface Typically low relief with unconsolidated sedimentary materials  Variety of coastal environments including: Beaches, dunes: graded, bedded sands Marshes: fine clayey deposits Channel deposits and deltas: mixed sands and gravels Off-shore deposits: layered silty/clayey deposits; limestone (reefs) Great fluctuation in sea level over geologic history  Transgression/regression deposits: layers of varying composition  Particle size and composition of sediments vary with the environment in which they were deposited  Mineralogy is strongly influenced by the mineralogy of the soils and sediments in the watersheds of the streams

19. SEDIMENT CHARACTERISTICS AS FUNCTION OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

20. Limestone Deposits Calcite (CaCO 3 ) or dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ) Precipitated by marine organisms on continental shelf some distance from the shoreline Minimal amount of silicate minerals As limestone weathers, the calcite and dolomite dissolve and are leached from the soil Limestone derived soils are formed from the non-carbonate residues  Often clayey Humid regions – soils often clayey and red Arid and semi-arid regions – accumulations of calcium carbonate in the subsoil because of incomplete leaching

21. GA Major Land Resource Areas (MLRA)

22. SOIL INTERPRETATIONS --INFERENCES about derived properties, capabilities, and potential uses of a given soil based on profile and landscape properties Derived properties: > saturated hydraulic conductivity (water flow) > available water holding capacity > infiltration rates, erodibility Capabilities/Potential Uses: > agriculture, crop production, forestry > urban land use: construction, roads, on-site waste water disposal (septics)

23. SLOPE GRADIENT -- major determinant for many uses -- slope classes Ag useCapabililty class 0-2%nearly levelunrestrictedI 2-6%gently rollingsome restrictionsII 6-10%moderately rollingmod. restrictionsIII 10-15%steeply rollingsevere restrictionsIV 15-25%steep---no ag use---V >25%really steep---no ag use---VI -- slope affects urban land use also, but less severely…

24. AVAILABLE WATER HOLDING CAPACITY --based on rooting depth (depth to Cr, Cd, cemented or R horizon), or to 150 cm; --water holding of each horizon in rooting zone, based on TEXTURE cm H 2 O/cm soil Textural classes:sil, si, sicl:0.2 All Other Textures0.15 s, ls0.05 Procedure:1) add up depths of horizons that have textures in the THREE groups 2) correct for gravel % 3) for each group, multiply by the AW per cm soil 4) sum up for each group, and rate the profile according to: Very Low:≤ 7.5 cm Low:>7.5 - 15 cm Moderate:>15 - 22.5 cm High:> 22.5

25. equivalent depththicknessfragmentsthicknesstexturecm/cmtotal cm 0-2020519sil0.23.80 20-35152012sicl0.22.40 35-75400 c0.156.00 75-120451040.5cl0.156.08 120-180601054ls0.052.70 TOTAL20.98 EXAMPLE CALCULATION FOR SOIL PROFILE:

26. Water Flow Rates -- Saturated hydraulic conductivity can be estimated from field evaluated morphological properties, based on most limiting layer in entire profile LOW:1. fragipan in profile; OR 2. at least one horizon with sc, c, and sic texture with massive, weak or platy structure AND some ≤2 chroma colors in horizon; OR 3. ≤2 chroma colors occurring directly above a Cr or R horizon HIGH:s and ls texture throughout profile MODERATE: all other profiles -- Engineering and septic uses depend upon K sat --can be measure in field; extremely variable property…

27. K s, cm/h

28. Estimates of K s for given soil horizon K s is a function of pore size distribution and tortuosity. Pores in the soil can be grouped into three types:  Packing pores Formed by packing of particles Size depends on particle-size distribution  Intraped pores Formed by packing of soil structural units (peds) Size and abundance depend on degree of structure formation and other structural properties  Biopores Formed by activity of flora and fauna in the soil

29. 0.002 mm Clay 2 mm Sand 10 mm

30. Estimates of K s Based On: Texture  Analog for size distribution of packing pores Structure  Greatest effect for unstructured non-sandy soils and strongly structured clayey soils  Shape may also have an impact Consistence  Firmer consistence indicates binding at grain contacts  Cementation that partially fills pores Clay mineralogy (shrink swell)  Difficult to estimate in the field  Rely on accessory properties and tendency for mineralogy to be similar within regions

31. Structure Effect on K s HorizonDepthStructureClayKsKs cm%Cm/h Bt120-462sbk482.3 Bt379-1122sbk430.5 BC185-1941sbk33<0.1 C269-328061.6

32. Soil Wetness Class Reflects the rate at which water is removed from the soil by both runoff and percolation.  Influenced by climate, slope, hydraulic conductivity, and landscape position. Wetness class is inferred from presence of matrix or redox depletions with value of 5 or more and chroma of 2 or less Wetness Class Depth to chroma  2 color cm 1>150 2100-150 350-100 425-50 5<25

33. Soil Drainage Class Related to soil wetness class and is more commonly used. Better referred to as “Agricultural Drainage Classes” Definitions are not rigid  Excessively drained  Somewhat excessively drained  Well drained  Moderately well drained  Somewhat poorly drained  Poorly drained  Very poorly drained

34. Seasonal Saturation Seasonal saturation has a major impact on soil behavior and appropriate use of soil for many applications  Induces anaerobic conditions which may impact growth and survival of crops as well as native plant species  Major implication of seasonal saturation for urban interpretations is that you “cannot put more water into a full bucket  If subsoil horizons are saturated and there is sufficient gradient, there is a potential that the water in the soil and added wastewater will move downslope  May also provide a direct linkage to deeper groundwater aquifers.

35. Water Table Measurement Relatively simple to measure with wells or piezometers Because of annual and seasonal water table fluctuation, need multiple years of measurement

36. Water Table Measurement

37. Interpretation of Seasonal Saturation Accurate measurement of water table heights is time consuming and expensive Redoximorphic features used as indicators of horizons that are seasonally saturated  Munsell chroma  2. No information on duration or season of saturation A few studies have developed relationships between redox features and duration of saturation  Limited geographic extrapolation.

38. Relation of Seasonal Saturation to Redox Features

39. Interpretations for Specific Uses Based on morphological and other properties of the soil If soil properties and the impact of the properties on the use are understood, any use interpretation can be made from basic properties. The key is understanding how the soil impacts the use.

40. PropertySlightModerateSevere Dwellings without Basements Floodingnone-any flooding Depth to high water table (cm)>7545-75<45 Shrink-swell potentiallowmoderatehigh Slope (%)<88-15>15 Depth to hard bedrock (m)>1.51-1.5<1 Depth to cemented horizons (m)>10.5-1<0.5 Cobbles and stones (volume %); weighted average of 25-100 cm depth <3030-65>65 Dwellings with Basements Floodingnone-any flooding Depth to high water table (cm)>15075-150<75 Shrink-swell potentiallowmoderatehigh Slope (%)<88-15>15 Depth to hard bedrock (m)>1.81-1.8<1 Depth to cemented horizons (m)>10.5-1<0.5 Cobbles and stones (volume %); weighted average of 25-100 cm depth <3030-65>65

41. Soils and Geomorphology - Definitions Geomorphology (geo(Greek) = earth; morphos = form): the science that studies the properties and evolution of the earth's surface.  the landscape is viewed as an assemblage of landforms which are individually transformed by geomorphic processes.  because soils are an integral part of landforms and landscapes, processes occurring on the landscape have implications for soil development.  Conversely, soil processes can be considered to be a part of landscape evolution. Landscape: the portion of the land surface that the eye can comprehend in a single view. Landforms: distinctive geometric configurations of the earth's land surface; features of the earth that together comprise the land surface

42. Soils and Geomorphology – Definitions (con’t) Geomorphic surface: a part of the surface of the land that has definite geographic boundaries and is formed by one or more agents during a given time span.  It should be considered as a surface, i.e. similar to a plane, no thickness (z) - only x and y dimensions. Because it is formed during a specific time it is datable, either by absolute or relative means. Erosion surface: a land surface shaped by the action of ice, wind, and water; a land surface shaped by the action of erosion. Constructional (depositional) surface: a land surface owing its character to the process of upbuilding, such as accumulation by deposition (either fluvial or colluvial).

43. Geomorphic Principles Geomorphology important in two areas (1)age, properties, and development rate of soils and (2) hydrologic patterns on landscapes including soil effects on water re-distribution across the landscape. Soil age:  Soil development does not commence until the erosion or deposition rate has reached a steady state that is less than the rate of soil formation.  For depositional surfaces, soil age is similar to the age of deposit. radiocarbon or other dating methods of the deposit are useful for determining soil age.  This is not true for erosional surfaces. There may have been multiple erosion episodes since the material was deposited or exposed at the surface. Often the best age that can be derived is a relative age of the surface compared to other geomorphic surfaces in the area.

44. Law of Superposition Younger beds occur on older beds if they have not been overturned Bed 1 Bed 2 Bed 1 Bed 2 Bed 1 2 3 4 2 3 2 Bed 2 Bed 1 Bed 2 Bed 1 Bed 2 Bed 1 Bed 2 Bed 1 Bed 2 Bed 1 Bed 2 Bed 1 2 3 4 2 3 2 2 3 4 2 3 2 A B D C

45. Relative Age of Erosional Surfaces An erosional surface is:  younger than the youngest material it cuts  younger than any structure it bevels  younger than fossils beneath the surface  is the same age or older than terrestrial deposits lying on it  older than the valleys which have been cut below it  younger than materials forming an erosion remnant above it  older than deposits in the valley below it  younger than any adjacent surface which stands at a higher level  older than any adjacent surface which stands at a lower level A hillslope is the same age as the alluvial valley fill to which it descends but is younger than the higher surface to which it ascends.

46. Hillslope Development Most upland landscapes have been sculpted by continual erosion and removal of material by streams. Landscape development by erosion can be considered to be cyclic and progresses through various stages; youth, maturity, and old age over time.  Davis, Penck models: assume uniform, gradual development of valley development, landscape downcutting over time.

47. Davis’ Stages of Hillslope Development

48. Implications of Davis’ Theory In mature or normal landscapes, surficial material was being removed at a slow but constant rate Superposed on the rate of loss of surface material was a rate of soil formation The landscape was considered to be in “equilibrium”  relative rates of downwaring and soil development determined the characteristics of the soil  the soil developed on the landscape would have the same characteristics over long periods of time  Soils thought to be in this equilibrium were considered to be “normal”

49. Downwaring of Hillslopes – Davis (1890)

50. Backwasting (Parallel Slope Retreat) (Penck, 1920’s)

51. Modern Concepts in Geomorphology: Process-based “Dynamic equilibrium” –downwasting and uplifting forces, change over time Erosional/Depositional Processes: Fluvial: channel incision, sediment transport/deposition/export from landscape Aeolian: erosion/deposition via wind processes Hillslope: soil creep, mass wasting, landslides Weathering: mass loss, selective dissolution, mineral transformations Regional Processes: Glacial: reshapes whole landscapes; affects sea levels Volcanic: mt building; source of new topography, parent material Tectonic: continental changes over geologic time; uplift, mt building, etc Climatic Factors: Precip., temperature affect MOST other processes Climate changes OFTEN over geologic time Landscape must RE-adjust to new climate conditions

52. Hillslope Position In humid climates, hillslopes are normally recognized to have 5 components, summit, shoulder, backslope, footslope, and toeslope. Hydrology, soil development, erosion, and parent material are often affected by hillslope position.  Summit – most stable position; may be wet (flat) or dry (convex)  Shoulder – convex position; most erosive, dry, least developed soils  Backslope – more stable than shoulder?; upper part dry; lower part wet  Footslope – concave position; may have colluvial parent material; wet soils  Toeslope – commonly alluvial parent materials; often wet soils

53. Hydrology and Geomorphology Movement of water and solutes across a landscape depends on geomorphic and stratigraphic relationships including landscape distribution of soil horizons Water runs downhill  Across surface  In the shallow subsurface, especially if soil has water-restrictive horizons Darcy’s law J = Q/A = K s (dh/L) Most commonly applied to vertical flow through soils  Also applicable to lateral water flow across the landscape

54. Hydrology and Geomorphology In rolling landscapes with convex hillslope summits, soils on the lower part of the hillslope will be wetter than soils higher in the landscape In the landscapes with the low relief and broad interfluves, little gradient to move water laterally to streams  Soils in the central part of the interfluve have high seasonal water tables and are often poorly drained  Near streams, gradient for lateral movement of water is greater and the soils are better drained  “Dry Edge“ or “Red Edge” effect As interfluve narrows, proportion of landscape that is “edge” increases  End product is rolling landscape with convex summits

55. Darcy’s Law and Lateral Water Movement J = K s (dh/L) J = (20 cm/d) X (9.9 m/100 m) = 1.98 cm/d J = (20 cm/d) X (0.1 m/10 m) = 0.2 cm/d 100 m 10 m 1000 m 100 m 3 m J = (20 cm/d) X (0.5 m/1000 m) = 0.01 cm/d J = (20 cm/d) X (2.5 m/100 m) = 0.5 cm/d “Dry edge” Water “stacks up” = wetter soils Well drained soils 10 m

56. -3 -2 0 0123 Distance, km Water Table Depth, m Seasonal High Water Table Seasonal Low Water Table Dry Edge Effect BroadInterfluve -3 -2 0 0123 Distance, km Water Table Depth, m Seasonal High Water Table Seasonal Low Water Table Dry Edge Effect BroadInterfluve

57. Hydrology and Geomorphology Depth to seasonal water table effects properties in addition to color  E horizon thickness  Bt clay content  E clay content  Mineralogy Impact on water movement through the soil  High water table = limited leaching  Well drained = maximum leaching

58. Hydrology and Geomorphology Landscape configuration and distribution of soil horizons influence paths for movement of water and solutes in the subsurface 5 factors that influence soil development  Climate  Relief  Biology (mostly vegetation)  Parent material  Time) Parent material and relief have the greatest impact at a local scale  Stratigraphy, geomorphology, their relationship to each other and landscape hydrology