1. The Struggle For Democracy
Chapter 11: Congress

3. Critical Thinking Questions
Survey data show that Americans have a low level of respect for Congress as an institution, yet we continue to reelect members at very high rates. Why?
Do voters make their decisions based on the well-being of the nation or on localized needs and priorities?

4. Structural Foundations of Congress
The Framers were worried about democracy, concerned about tyranny, and wanted an energetic, capable government
Congress: the center of policymaking
Enumerated powers
Elastic or necessary and proper clause
Implied powers
Powers divided between the two chambers

6. Structural Foundations of Congress
Constraints on Congress
Republicanism
Bicameralism
Prohibitions against
Bills of attainder
Ex post facto laws
Suspension of writs of habeas corpus
Granting titles of nobility

7. Structural Foundations of Congress
Competing centers of power
Separation of powers
Checks and balances
Do you remember the difference between the two?

10. Structural Foundations of Congress
Bicameralism & Representation
Apportionment
Great Compromise
Representation in the House is based on population
Representation in the Senate is based on equality
Fixed terms
House = 2 years and up for election every two years
Senate = 6 years and one-third of the body is up for reelection every two years
Election
House = direct popular election
Senate = state legislators until the 17th Amendment (1913)

11. Structural Foundations of Congress
Federalism
Powers granted to the national government only
Powers granted to the states only
Powers shared by the states and the national government
Powers denied to both entities

12. Representation & Democracy
In terms of demographics, who are the members of Congress?
Race: women and racial minorities are significantly underrepresented
Social class: family wealth, great education, mostly lawyers and business people

15. Representation & Democracy
The average congressional person is a white male in his mid to late 50’s who is a lawyer, or has some other type of post-baccalaureate degree, and is a member of the upper middle class.
Is this a problem? Why? Why not?

16. Representation & Democracy
Edmund Burke described two styles
Delegate: representative who tries to reflect the views of his/her constituency
Trustee: representative who acts independently and uses his/her best judgment
Critical Thinking Question: Which style is more likely to be used in which chamber? Why?

17. Representation & Democracy
Equal Representation
House
Representation based on population; reapportionment is based on the national census, which is done every ten years
State legislatures draw the district lines
The dominant party will draw the lines in a way that retains power
Gerrymandering
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Majority-Minority districts

19. Representation & Democracy
Electoral Connection
Equal representation in the Senate
Gives great power to the small states
Can distort popular sentiment
Diminishes equality
Senate is unrepresentative: more than half of the senators in the 104th Congress come from states that together make up only one-fifth of the population

21. Representation & Democracy
Money and congressional elections
It is expensive to run for office and is getting more expensive
The amount of money spent is related to the probability of winning, but it does not guarantee winning
Incumbents usually raise and spend more money than challengers

23. Representation & Democracy
Incumbency: some signs of change
High turnover if we look at the percentage of incumbents who actually return after an election as opposed to the incumbent reelection rate
Turnover
Members retired
Defeated at the nomination stage by members of their own parties

25. Representation & Democracy
Yes, but it is still great to be an incumbent!
Attract more money
Can use congressional resources
Casework
Franking
Pork

26. Representation & Democracy
So how representative is Congress?
To a degree, they vote and pass laws based on public opinion
It is also true that
They do not always follow public opinion. The public often has no opinions or preferences on certain subjects, which means
Congress is influenced by money and interest groups
Democracy is impaired because these influences distort popular sovereignty and also undermine political equality

27. How Congress Works Congress is an institution
Rule bound
Hierarchical
Power flows from the top down
Congress is decentralized
Members are independent; elections are candidate driven
Leadership is weak
Members see themselves as equals, not in a pecking order

28. How Congress Works Political parties in Congress
Legislative business is organized along party lines
Party voting
Party identification serves as a cue
Not clear if party voting differences are caused by party identification or by constituents
Party discipline is weak

30. How Congress Works Congressional Leadership House Speaker
Third in line of succession to the presidency
No clear cut rules for the job
Majority floor leader: helps Speaker plan strategy
Minority floor leader: chief spokesperson for the opposition
Party whips: act as liaisons between leaders and the “rank and file”; keep track of voting

31. How Congress Works Congressional Leadership Senate
President of the Senate is the Vice President
President pro tempore: most senior member of the Senate
Majority leader
Influences/controls committee assignments, scheduling business, and office space
Weaker than the Speaker of the House
Minority leader: leads the opposition

32. How Congress Works Committees Why does Congress use committees?
Screening devices
Specialization
Enhances chances for reelection

33. How Congress Works Types of committees
Standing: permanent and organized by subject matter
Select: temporary and created to conduct studies or investigations
Joint: organized to expedite business and facilitate the flow of legislation
Conference: joint committees formed to reconcile differences in bills

34. How Congress Works
Congress is guided by formal rules and informal norms
Rules: specify how things should be done and what is and is not allowed
House
More rule-bound, organized, and hierarchical
Leaders are more powerful; procedures are more structured
Restricted floor debate; limited amendments; members are restricted to one major committee
More specialized than the Senate

35. How Congress Works
Congress is guided by formal rules and informal norms
Rules: specify how things should be done and what is and is not allowed
Senate
More relaxed and informal than the House
Senators are more independent
Less specialization
Unrestricted floor debate
Unanimous consent
Filibuster
cloture

36. How Congress Works
Congress is guided by formal rules and informal norms
Norms: generally accepted expectations about behavior
Reciprocity
Courtesy
Respect for
Reelection motives
Frequent visits back home
Members’ advertisement, taking credit, etc.

39. Congress, Public Policy and American Public
Congress as a policymaker
Criticisms: fragmented, will not take responsibility; too cozy with interest groups, unethical, etc.
Assessment of Criticisms:
Mixed – sometimes Congress does well, and sometimes it does not
Congress seems to do better under the direction of strong presidential leadership

40. Congress, Public Policy and American Public
The American people
Like their own representatives and senators, but they dislike Congress as an institution
Approval ratings are related to good economic times and confidence about the future
Americans
Have unrealistic expectations of Congress
Do not like the messiness of the democratic process

41. The End
Chapter 11: Congress