1. Games as Systems of Challenge, Competition and Conflict goal states and obstacles to reaching them

2. COSC 4126 cybernetics The rational player  Rational player has a comprehensive strategy – knows what to do in every possible state. not influenced by context (emotions, ethics)  (interesting) games are too complex for players to have perfect strategies Is there a strategy that assures a chess player a win? No one knows.

3. COSC 4126 cybernetics Fun from rationality  No player is completely rational.  Trying to develop a comprehensive strategy is a learning challenge.  Complexity, random factors and other players assure uncertainty in planning.

4. COSC 4126 cybernetics Models of interaction  turn-taking games game is a path from root to leaf in a tree of possible games start state first player moves state after first move second player moves state after second move

5. COSC 4126 cybernetics Models of interaction  concurrent play games payoff matrix of possible outcomes e.g., paper/scissors/rock first player moves second player moves 1234567 a b c X\Y d e f X is outcome for 1st player Y is outcome for 2nd player if X plays c, Y plays 4

6. COSC 4126 cybernetics Models of interaction  iterated concurrent play games

7. COSC 4126 cybernetics Concepts from concurrent play (game theory) Utility  outcomes are immediate results of player actions (powerups, rewards, progress toward ultimate goals  zero-sum outcomes – outcome gain for one player equals outcome loss for opponent  positive sum encounters – both players receive positive outcomes; implies some degree of cooperation

8. COSC 4126 cybernetics Examples – 3 x 3 games 123 A2\-22\4-2\3 B3\-24\11\-2 C-1\2-2\3-1\1 examples zero sum positive sum dominant strategies boring game (equilibrium) uncertainty (no equilibrium) 123 A0\0-1\11\-1 B 0\0-1\1 C 1\-10\0

9. COSC 4126 cybernetics Games that have a game theory model  Paper/scissors/rock  Matching pennies  Cake sharing problem  Prisoner’s dilemma self-interest vs trust/cooperation TalkDon’t Talk-3\-30\-5 Don’t-5\0-1\-1

10. COSC 4126 cybernetics Conflict  Crawford,1984: “Conflict arises naturally from the interaction in a game. The player is actively pursuing some goal. Obstacles prevent him from easily achieving this goal. Conflict is an intrinsic element of all games. It can be direct or indirect, violent or nonviolent, but it is always present in every game.”

11. COSC 4126 cybernetics Shapes of conflict  single player vs single player - boxing  group vs group - basketball  single player against many - tag  many single players competing against eachother - race  single player against a game system -tetris  players competing side by side against a game system - blackjack  group of players cooperating against a game system -

12. COSC 4126 cybernetics Direct or indirect conflict  zero-sum (arm-wrestling) or  parallel (ice-skating competition)

13. COSC 4126 cybernetics Games can incorporate many shapes, forms  Survivor – group vs group  single player vs single player  Board games – indirect and direct racing on circuit and bumping from common square  Choice of formats: single player against game or player vs player

14. COSC 4126 cybernetics Case study – space-invader type forms of struggle 1.single player against game – cumulative score flexible for player goals – personal best, score plateau OR alternating play – score  zero-sum! OR high score list – many single players - score  ranking 2.informal goal – survival time, attain level

15. COSC 4126 cybernetics A variation - joust  two players can play concurrently all above formats.. plus direct fighting cooperating against invaders territorial interference  arcade game with capacity to pay for health, even revival

16. COSC 4126 cybernetics Analysis of conflict for game design  what explicit shapes and forms of conflict are designed in?  what opportunities are there for players to create goals and competition themselves?

17. COSC 4126 cybernetics Anatomy of a goal  goals essential to conflict, competition  goal associated with end of play? yes – checkmate no – tetris – no victorious endpoint, inevitable death  subgoals  informal goals as described in the forms of struggle - player defined

18. COSC 4126 cybernetics Conflict and fairness  inside the magic circle, we expect fairness and equality  almost impossible to achieve – going first, wind, home field  digital games – more fair but more opaque, creating mistrust  not necessarily symmetry  compensation as negative feedback to increase fairness eg. passing the deal baseball innings – alternate, nine chances

19. COSC 4126 cybernetics Games for learning  Competition is inherent in games...  Is competition a bad thing in educational setting? pure cooperative nature of education is a myth competition is motivating  What game models fit best?

20. COSC 4126 cybernetics Educational shapes of conflict – university as games  players competing side by side against a game system  many single players competing against eachother  single player against many  group of players cooperating against a game system  single player vs single player  group vs group  single player against a game system

21. COSC 4126 cybernetics Cooperative games and New Games Movement  competition is inherent to play but there is a dependent relationship with cooperation  New Games Movement tried to blur the lines between the two  example games: Catch the Dragon’s Tail

22. COSC 4126 cybernetics Catch the Dragon’s Tail  cooperation – holding on to form dragon  competition - front is chasing rear – what about the middle? roles change  clear goal with zero-sum payoff  blurs boundaries between game shapes