1. Transmutation
Transmutation is the process of atoms of unstable nuclide A changing into atoms of nuclide B.
This can occur naturally (by radioactive decay) or...
...as a result of bombardment reactions
Example: Bombardment of nitrogen-14 with alpha particles... oxygen-17 was formed.

2. Bombardment Reactions
The production of synthetic elements (transuranium elements) and non-natural nuclides of other elements are the result of bombardment reactions.
Example:
208Bi + 4He --> 210At + ?
14N + 4He --> 17O + ?

3. Chemical Effects of Radiation
Radiations produced from radioactive decay can interact with atoms and molecules of surrounding material.
Electrons of these atoms/molecules are most directly affected by radiation.
Excitation
Ionization
Types of radiation:
Nonionizing - excitation (low energy)
Ionizing (high energy) - resulting in formation of ion pairs

4. Free Radical Formation
Free radical: atom, molecule or ion containing an unpaired electron
Free radicals rapidly react with nearby chemicals.
Stable molecule
Another free radical
Example:
H2O + radiation --> H2O+ + e-
H2O+ + H2O --> H3O+ + OH
(hydroxyl radical)

5. Radiation Effects on the Human Body
Protection?:
paper or clothing
metal foil (such as Al)
thick concrete & Pb

6. Biochemical Effects of Radiation
Alpha - due to ingestion
Example: polonium-210 (t1/2 = 138 days)
Beta - both internal and
external
Example: iodine-131 (t1/2 = 8.0 days)
cobalt - 60 (t1/2 = 5.3 years)
skinburns
Gamma - this is very effective!!
Alpha, beta, and gamma radiation differ in penetrating ability.

7. Radiation Detection Filters Geiger counters
Example: Film badges used in nuclear power facilities
Geiger counters
Contain gas atoms which are ionized...
Film badges are used to determine a person’s exposure to radiation.
 Radiation passing through a Geiger counter ionizes one or more gas atoms, producing ion pairs.

8. Sources of Radiation Natural Human-made
Radon seepage, rocks & soils, minerals in the body, cosmic radiation.
Human-made
Medical X-rays, nuclear medicine, consumer products, occupational exposure, nuclear fallout (from weapons testing and nuclear power plants)
Cells that reproduce rapidly are most sensitive to radiation damage.

9. Nuclear Medicine
Diagnostic uses: use a radionuclide of an element already present in the body
The movement of the radionuclide is easily monitored.
Brain scans are obtained using radioactive technetium-99 (emitter), a laboratory-produced radionuclide.

10. Therapeutic Uses
used to selectively destroy abnormal cells

11. Fission & Fusion reactions
Fission: a large nucleus splits into two medium-sized nuclei with the release of several free neutrons and LOTS of energy.
Fusion: two small nuclei are collided together to produce a larger nucleus and LOTS of energy.

12. Fission
Uranium-235 undergoes fission when a neutron collides with the nuclide.
If enough radionuclides are present, a “chain reaction” can occur. Watch out!

13. Fission Nuclear Reactors
The fission reactor produces heat that is used to turn water into steam in order to drive a turbine.
The benefits include a large amount of energy from a relatively small amount of fuel.
The potential risk includes:
Disposal of radioactive products
Fallout if an explosion occurs

14. Fusion Naturally occurs in stars!
Consider what happens
during a star’s lifetime!
Ex.
1H + 2H -->
1H + 3H -->
Benefits: Nearly unlimited fuel supply; no radioactive waste
Risks: Very difficult to maintain the reaction (need
extremely high Temperatures to keep the reaction going)
The process of nuclear fusion maintains the interior of the sun at the temperature of approximately 15 million degrees.

15. Comparing Chemical & Nuclear Reactions