1. 1 PSYCHOLOGY (8th Edition) David Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2006

2. 2 Motivation and Work Chapter 12

3. 3 Motivation and Work Perspectives on Motivation  Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology  Drives and Incentives  Optimum Arousal  A Hierarchy of Motivations

4. 4 Motivation and Work Hunger  The Physiology of Hunger  The Psychology of Hunger Sexual Motivation  The Physiology of Sex  The Psychology of Sex

5. 5 Motivation and Work Sexual Motivation  Adolescent Sexuality  Sexual Orientation  Sex and Human Values The Need to Belong

6. 6 Motivation and Work Motivation at Work  Personnel Psychology  Organizing Psychology: Motivating Achievement

7. 7 Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. Alan Ralston was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock that pinned him down. Alan Ralston AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren

8. 8 MOTIVATION Motivation is an intervening variable. Why go to college?

9. 9 AN INTERVENING VARIABLE Biological factors Cognitive factors Emotional factors Social factors

10. 10 MOTIVATION THEORIES No single theory accounts for all aspects of motivation Each contributes an important perspective

11. 11 MOTIVATION GRAPHIC ORGANIZER TITLE: MOTIVATION THEORIES BOTTOM: –Instinct Theory (Evolutionary Psychology) –Drive Reduction Theory –Optimum Arousal Theory –Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

12. 12 MOTIVATION THEORIES GRAPHIC ORGANIZER WRITE one to two sentence summary of each theory WRITE key words related to theory WRITE an example for each theory or DRAW a picture to represent an example of each theory COMPLETE EXPLORATION SURVEY

13. 13 Perspectives on Motivation Four perspectives to explain motivation include the following: 1.Instinct Theory 2.Drive-Reduction Theory 3.Arousal Theory 4.Hierarchy of Motives

14. 14 Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951). Examples? Where the woman builds different kinds of houses the bird builds only one kind of nest. © Ariel Skelley/ Masterfile Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc.

15. 15 INSTINCT THEORY McDougall named 10,000 human instincts; became meaningless labels Modern research: –Instincts: sucking, smiling, biological predisposition for some phobias –Evolutionists: mate selection, aggression Fails to accommodate role of learning, culture

16. 16 Drive-Reduction Theory When the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951).

17. 17 Drive Reduction Food Drive Reduction Organism The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature). Stomach Full Empty Stomach (Food Deprived)

18. 18 DRIVE REDUCTION Complete Exploration Inventory Scores can range from 18 to 144 Higher scores: greater desire to investigate new and complex social, intellectual, and environmental stimuli Why do we feel driven to experience stimulation? Why do people show such wide variation in this motive? Role of cortical arousal

19. 19 DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY Drive Reduction Theory was challenged by Harlow Review Harlow study Why does the Harlow study refute Drive Reduction Theory?

20. 20 Incentive Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives. A food-deprived person who smells baking bread (incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.

21. 21 INCENTIVE THEORY- ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI Behavior is goal directed to attain positive incentives and avoid negative incentives Nature of incentives vary from one person to another and from one situation to another due to value placed Wanting and liking are separate (processed in two different parts of the brain): wanting = attraction liking = evaluation

22. 22 Optimum Arousal Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it. Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the absence of a need-based drive. Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin Randy Faris/ Corbis

23. 23 OPTIMUM AROUSAL LEVELS Yerkes- Dodson Law: arousal/performance Transparency graphs Easy or simple task: High level of arousal or motivation is optimal Moderately difficult task: Moderate arousal or motivation is optimal Difficult task: low level of arousal or motivation is optimal Example for each graph?

24. 24 Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition. Know definition of self-actualization. (1908-1970)

25. 25 Hierarchy of Needs Hurricane Survivors Menahem Kahana/ AFP/ Getty Images Mario Tama/ Getty Images David Portnoy/ Getty Images for Stern Joe Skipper/ Reuters/ Corbis

26. 26 Hunger When are we hungry? When do we eat? When there is no food in our stomach. When we are hungry. How do we know when our stomach is empty? Our stomach growls. These are also called hunger pangs.

27. 27 PEER TUTORING Pair up; pick up four sheets Read through both sets of questions Divide papers according to Person A and Person B Go through questions/answers, tutoring one another on hard questions Exchange papers, go through questions again

28. 28 The Physiology of Hunger Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.

29. 29 Stomachs Removed Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food).

30. 30 Glucose: C 6 H 12 O 6 Glucose is a form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides a source of energy. When glucose levels are low, we feel hungry.

31. 31 Glucose: C 6 H 12 O 6 The glucose level in blood is maintained. Increases in insulin decreases glucose in the blood, making us feel hungry. Glucose Molecule

32. 32 Glucose & the Brain Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. Rat Hypothalamus

33. 33 SET POINT The two regions of the hypothalamus: –Lateral hypothalamus: feeding center –Ventomedial hypothalamus: stop eating center The two regions may interact to maintain a set point of body weight, food intake or related metabolic signals

34. 34 Hypothalamic Centers The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). (Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating.) Research study: The reduction of blood glucose stimulated orexin in the LH, which led rats to eat ravenously.

35. 35 Hypothalamic Centers The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the VMH, and the animal eats excessively. Richard Howard

36. 36 Hypothalamus & Hormones The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger. HormoneTissueResponse Orexin increaseHypothalamusIncreases hunger Ghrelin increaseStomachIncreases hunger Insulin increasePancreasIncreases hunger Leptin increaseFat cellsDecreases hunger PPY increaseDigestive tractDecreases hunger

37. 37 Set-Point Theory Manipulating the lateral and the ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat ” or set point If weight is lost, food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is gained, the opposite takes place. There are objections to set point theory ( can change set point, psychological factors, etc) settling point is preferred by some experts

38. 38 BASAL METABOLIC RATE Definition: the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure Humans regulate weight by food intake, energy output, and basal metabolic rate. When deprived of food or overfed, basal metabolic rate will change in response.

39. 39 SURVEY OF EATING HABITS Decide if each statement is true or false as applied to you. Do not omit any of the items. The survey will be self-scored. Write two - three statements that generalize the findings of the survey regarding –Food preferences –Influence of environmental factors on hunger –The relationship between food preferences/habits and family life.

40. 40 The Psychology of Hunger Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et al., 1998).

41. 41 Taste Preference: Biology or Culture? Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only when we feel hunger but what we feel hungry for! Richard Olsenius/ Black Star Victor Englebert

42. 42 TASTE PREFERENCES Carbohydrates and serotonin Sweet and salty preferences are genetic and universal Other tastes are conditioned, example? Neophobia was adaptive. Explain Specific hungers or desires for particular foods at particular times: biological need for certain nutrients

43. 43 Hot Cultures like Hot Spices Countries with hot climates use more bacteria- inhibiting spices in meat dishes.

44. 44 Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still feels overweight. Reprinted by permission of The New England Journal of Medicine, 207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617. Lisa O’Connor/ Zuma/ Corbis

45. 45 Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise.

46. 46 Obesity http://www.cyberdiet.com A disorder characterized by being excessively overweight (Body Mass is greater than 30). Obesity increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems.

47. 47 OBESITY BIOLOGICAL EXPLANTIONS: –Dysfunction of dopamine reward circuits –Insensitivity to leptin receptors LEARNED EXPLANATIONS: –Parent models –Maladaptive reactions to stress

48. 48 Reasons for Eating Disorders 1.Sexual Abuse: Childhood sexual abuse does not cause eating disorders. 2.Family: Younger generations develop eating disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern. 3.Genetics: Twin studies show that eating disorders are more likely to occur in identical twins rather than fraternal twins.

49. 49 Body Image (Women) Western culture tends to place more emphasis on a thin body image in comparison to other cultures.

50. 50 OBESITY – OTHER FACTORS Women have lower metabolic rates Maladaptive reactions to stress Cycle dieting actually increases weight, depression and stress-related symptoms

51. 51 Summary

52. 52 Sexual Motivation Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive. Sexual scripts: Patterns of behavior; a way of testing one’s mate-value and the possibility of alternatives. What behaviors constitute flirting?

53. 53 FLIRTING Open body position Raised eyebrows, esp when first seeing Head cant, side tilt exposing neck, sometimes a flick of the hair Sustained eye contact – longer than feels comfortable Leaning forward (sometimes unconsciously pointing at) Leading questions (allow other to show off most attractive feature) Sideways glances – often followed by a glance away or down and a shy smile

54. 54 SEXUAL RESEARCH Why is it difficult to research this topic? Kinsey Report Masters and Johnson –Representative sample? Laumann’s University of Chicago Study, 1994 (with follow ups more recently) –Careful construction of the sample –Face to face interviews –Could answer some questions anonymously

55. 55 UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO STUDY Challenged some popular culture and mass- media images of sexuality: –Most: once a week in monogamous relationships –Number of partners (6,2) –Those in committed, monogamous relationships had the most satisfying sex life

56. 56 The Physiology of Sex Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response to consist of four phases: PhasePhysiological Response Excitement Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges. Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure. Orgasm Contractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release. Resolution Engorged genital release blood. Male goes through refractory phase. Women resolve slower.

57. 57 Sexual Problems Men generally suffer from two kinds of sexual problems: premature ejaculation and erectile disorder. Women may suffer from orgasmic disorders. These problems are not due to personality disorders and can be treated through behavior therapy and drugs such as Viagra.

58. 58 Hormones and Sexual Behavior Sex hormones effect the development of sexual characteristics and (especially in animals) activate sexual behavior. MaleTestes Testosterone (Small amounts of estrogen) Female Ovaries Adrenals Estrogen (Small amounts of testosterone)

59. 59 Testosterone Levels of testosterone remain constant in males, so it is difficult to manipulate and activate sexual behavior. Castration, which reduces testosterone levels, lowers sexual interest.

60. 60 Estrogen Female animals “in heat” express peak levels of estrogen. Female receptivity may be heightened with estrogen injections. Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than on animals. Women are more likely to have sex when close to ovulation (increased testosterone), and men show increased testosterone levels when socializing with women.

61. 61 The Psychology of Sex Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In that sense, sex is not a need because if we do not have sex, we do not die.

62. 62 External Stimuli It is common knowledge that men become sexually aroused when browsing through erotic material. However, women experience similar heightened arousal under controlled conditions.

63. 63 Imagined Stimuli Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire. Sotographs/The Gamma-Liaison Network/ Getty Images

64. 64 Adolescent Sexuality When individuals reach adolescence, their sexual behavior develops. However, there are cultural differences. Sexual promiscuity in modern Western culture is much greater than in Arab countries and other Asian countries.

65. 65 Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or either sex. HomosexualHeterosexual Bisexual

66. 66 SEXUAL ORIENTATION APA has dropped homosexuality from the DSM – thus ending its official status as a form of psychopathology Three components of sexual orientation are not always consistent within an individual. Explain with an example. –Behavior –Attraction or orientation –Identification

67. 67 Sexual Orientation Statistics In Europe and America, based on many national surveys, homosexuality in men is 3-4% and in women is 1-2%. As members of a minority, homosexuals often struggle with their sexual orientation.

68. 68 Origins of Sexual Orientation Homosexuality is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather than environmental factors. This remains a controversial area. Homosexual parents Cynthia Johnson/ Time magazine

69. 69 Animal Homosexuality A number of animal species are devoted to same-sex partners, suggesting that homosexuality exists in the animal world. Wendell and Cass David Hecker/ AFP/ Getty Images

70. 70 The Brain In homosexual men, the size of the anterior hypothalamus is smaller (LeVay, 1991) and the anterior commissure is larger (Allen & Gorski, 1992). Anterior Hypothalamus Anterior Commissure http://www.msu.edu

71. 71 Genes & Sexual Orientation A number of reasons suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors. 1.Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families. 2.Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins. However, there are mixed results. 3.Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can genetically manipulate females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females.

72. 72 Hormones & Sexual Orientation Prenatal hormones affect sexual orientation during critical periods of fetal development. 1.Animals: Exposure of a fetus to testosterone results in females (sheep) exhibiting homosexual behavior. 2.Humans: Exposure of a male or female fetus to female hormones results in an attraction to males. Heterosexual male Homosexual Heterosexual female

73. 73 Sexual Orientation: Biology

74. 74 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION Many studies are correlational Interpretation of data: if in twins sexual orientation is shared 52% of the time, it also means 48% of the time it is not Instead of a gene for homosexuality there may be a set of genes that influence activity level, emotionality, aggressiveness, etc. Example: gender nonconformity. How will this influence environmental conditions?

75. 75 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION Which came first, brain differences or behavior which sculpted the brain? Kinsey thought of sexual behavior as a continuum rather than discreet categories. Explain.

76. 76 Changing Attitudes

77. 77 Sex and Human Values “Promiscuous recreational sex poses certain psychological, social, health, and moral problems that must be faced realistically” (Baumrind, 1982). Andreanna Seymore/ Getty Images

78. 78 POPULAR CULTURE How is sexuality often portrayed in the media? What are the negative effects of the portrayal of sexuality in the media?

79. 79 The Need to Belong “[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our need to belong (affiliation). “Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffers from social starvation. 20 th Century Fox/ Dreamworks/ The Kobal Collection

80. 80 Aiding Survival Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rates. These bonds led to the following: 1.Protecting against predators, especially for the young. 2.Procuring food. 3.Reproducing the next offspring.

81. 81 GROUP ACTIVITY You will be assigned to a small group. Each person in the group should introduce themselves by first name. You will be given a card which will describe your role within the group. Do NOT let anyone see the description. You will have 3 – 5 minutes to discuss the topic and report back to the class. The topic:

82. 82 Affiliation 1.Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our thinking and emotions. 2.Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation decreases it. 3.Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones. 4.Ostracism: Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty or bizarre behavior. 5.Fortifying Health: People who tend to have close friends are happier and healthier.

83. 83 Affiliation Social comparison Support and comfort in times of trouble or anxiety –Study by Schachter Getting a painful shot: wait with others who are also getting a shot, others who are not getting a shot, or alone?

84. 84 Motivation at Work The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filled by love and work. Culver Pictures

85. 85 Attitudes Towards Work 1.Job: Necessary way to make money. 2.Career: Opportunity to advance from one position to another. 3.Calling: Fulfilling a socially useful activity. People have different attitudes toward work. Some take it as a:

86. 86 Flow & Rewards Flow is the experience between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s work. People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards (money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic rewards.

87. 87 Work and Satisfaction In industrialized countries work and satisfaction go hand-in-hand.

88. 88 Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Applies psychological principles to the workplace. 1.Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers. 2.Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

89. 89 Personnel Psychology Personnel psychologists assist organizations at various stages of selecting and assessing employees. Henri Matisse © CNAC/ MNAM/ Dist. Rèunion des Musées Nationaux/ Art Resource, NY

90. 90 Harnessing Strengths Identifying people’s strengths (analytical, disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and matching them to a particular area of work is the first step toward workplace effectiveness.

91. 91 Interviews & Performance Interviewers are confident in their ability to predict long-term job performance. However, informal interviews are less informative than standardized tests.

92. 92 The Interviewer Illusion Interviewers often overrate their discernment. 1.Intention vs. Habits: Intensions matter, but long- lasting habits matter even more. 2.Successful Employees: Interviewers are more likely to talk about those employees that turned out successful. 3.Presumptions about Candidates: Interviewers presume (wrongly) that what we see (candidate) is what we get. 4.Preconceptions: An interviewer’s prior knowledge about the candidate may affect her judgment.

93. 93 Structured Interview A formal and disciplined way of gathering information from the interviewee. Structured interviews pinpoint strengths (attitudes, behaviors, knowledge, and skills). The personnel psychologist may do the following: 1.Analyze the job. 2.Script questions. 3.Train the interviewer.

94. 94 Personnel Psychologist’s Tasks

95. 95 Appraising Performance Appraising performance results in two things: 1) employee retention, and 2) the encouragement of better performance.

96. 96 Organizational Psychology: Motivating Achievement Achievement motivation is defined as a desire for significant accomplishment. Skinner devised a daily discipline schedule that led him to become the 20 th century’s most influential psychologist. Ken Heyman/ Woodfin Camp & Associates

97. 97 ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION Measured by: Henry Murray: Thematic Apperception Test McClelland experiment Prefer feedback from harsh, competent critic over friendly, less competent critic Gender differences: females attribute failure to lack of ability, men to lack of effort or situation

98. 98 YOUR JOB/CAREER List what you like about your job. List what you don’t like about your job. List the positives of your career choice. List the negatives of your career choice. Label each as extrinsic or intrinsic.

99. 99 Satisfaction & Engagement Harter et al., (2002) observed that employee engagement means that the worker: 1.Knows what is expected of him. 2.Feels the need to work. 3.Feels fulfilled at work. 4.Has opportunities to do his best. 5.Thinks himself to be a part of something significant. 6.Has opportunities to learn and develop. Engaged workers are more productive than non-engaged workers at different stores of the same chain. Capital-Journal/ David Eulitt/ AP/ Wide World Photos

100. 100 Managing Well Every leader dreams of managing in ways that enhance people’s satisfaction, engagement, and productivity in his or her organization. Larry Brown offers 4-5 positive comments for every negative comment. Ezra Shaw/ Getty Images

101. 101 Job-Relevant Strengths Effective leaders need to select the right people, determine their employees’ talents, adjust their work roles to their talents, and develop their talents and strengths.

102. 102 Challenging Goals Specific challenging goals motivate people to reach higher achievement levels, especially if there is feedback such as progress reports.

103. 103 ASSESSING LEADERSHIP STYLE Complete the least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale Add the numbers you circled for each of the adjective pairs

104. 104 ASSESSING LEADERSHIP Scores of 56 or less: A task-motivated person Score of 62 or above: Relationship- motivated person Score 57 – 61: Socially independent

105. 105 EXPLANATION OF LCP Task motivated: completion of the task is of most importance influences perception. “If I cannot work with you, then you can’t be any good in other respects.” Relationship motivated: “Getting a job done is not everything. Even though I can’t work with you, you may still be friendly, relaxed, interesting, etc. Socially independent: Less concerned with the way people evaluate them, and less eager to take the leadership role. May have a combination of the two motivational patterns.

106. 106 LCP cont. Fiedler argues situational factors determine the relative effectiveness of the task-and relationship oriented styles of leadership

107. 107 Leadership Style Different organizational demands need different kinds of leaders. Leadership varies from a boss- focused style to a democratic style. 1.Task Leadership: Involves setting standards, organizing work, and focusing on goals. 2.Social Leadership: Involves mediating conflicts and building high achieving teams.