2. Chapter 9 Planetary Geology: Earth and the Other Terrestrial Worlds

3. 9.1 Connecting Planetary Interiors and Surfaces Our goals for learning What are terrestrial planets like on the inside? What causes geological activity? How do some planetary interiors create magnetic fields?

4. What are terrestrial planets like on the inside?

5. Seismic Waves Vibrations that travel through Earth’s interior tell us what Earth is like on the inside

6. Earth’s Interior Core: Highest density; nickel and iron Mantle: Moderate density; silicon, oxygen, etc. Crust: Lowest density; granite, basalt, etc.

7. Terrestrial Planet Interiors Applying what we have learned about Earth’s interior to other planets tells us what their interiors are probably like

8. Differentiation Gravity pulls high-density material to center Lower-density material rises to surface Material ends up separated by density

9. Lithosphere A planet’s outer layer of cool, rigid rock is called the lithosphere It “floats” on the warmer, softer rock that lies beneath

10. Strength of Rock Rock stretches when pulled slowly but breaks when pulled rapidly The gravity of a large world pulls slowly on its rocky content, shaping the world into a sphere

11. Special Topic: How do we know what’s inside a planet? P waves push matter back and forth. Primary (arrives first), Pressure waves, like sound in air. Also called longitudinal waves. S waves shake matter side to side. Secondary (slower traveling) Shear waves will only travel in solids. Also called transverse waves.

12. Special Topic: How do we know what’s inside a planet? P waves go through Earth’s core but S waves do not We conclude that Earth’s core must have a liquid outer layer

13. Thought Question What is necessary for differentiation to occur in a planet? a) It must have metal and rock in it b) It must be a mix of materials of different density c) Material inside must be able to flow d) All of the above e) b and c

14. Thought Question What is necessary for differentiation to occur in a planet? a) It must have metal and rock in it b) It must be a mix of materials of different density c) Material inside must be able to flow d) All of the above e) b and c

15. What causes geological activity?

16. Heating of Interior Accretion and differentiation when planets were young Radioactive decay is most important heat source today!

17. Cooling of Interior Convection transports heat as hot material rises and cool material falls Conduction transfers heat from hot material to cool material Radiation sends energy into space

18. Role of Size Smaller worlds cool off faster and harden earlier Moon and Mercury are now geologically “dead”

19. Surface Area to Volume Ratio Heat content depends on volume Loss of heat through radiation depends on surface area Time to cool depends on surface area divided by volume Larger objects have smaller ratio and cool more slowly

20. Why do some planetary interiors create magnetic fields?

21. Sources of Magnetic Fields Motions of charged particles are what create magnetic fields

22. Sources of Magnetic Fields A world can have a magnetic field if charged particles are moving inside 3 requirements: –Molten interior –Convection –Moderately rapid rotation

23. What have we learned? What are terrestrial planets like on the inside? –Core, mantle, crust structure –Denser material is found deeper inside What causes geological activity? –Interior heat drives geological activity –Radioactive decay is currently main heat source Why do some planetary interiors create magnetic fields? –Requires motion of charged particles inside planet

24. 9.2 Shaping Planetary Surfaces Our goals for learning What processes shape planetary surfaces? Why do the terrestrial planets have different geological histories? How does a planet’s surface reveal its geological age?

25. What processes shape planetary surfaces?

26. Processes that Shape Surfaces Impact cratering –Impacts by asteroids or comets Volcanism –Eruption of molten rock onto surface Tectonics –Disruption of a planet’s surface by internal stresses Erosion –Surface changes made by wind, water, or ice

27. Impact Cratering Most cratering happened soon after solar system formed Craters are about 10 times wider than object that made them Small craters greatly outnumber large ones

28. Impact Craters Meteor Crater (Arizona) Tyco (Moon)

29. Impact Craters on Mars “standard” crater impact into icy ground eroded crater

30. Volcanism Volcanism happens when molten rock (magma) finds a path through lithosphere to the surface Molten rock is called lava after it reaches the surface. The relief of pressure is what makes rocks melt. Notice below the lava pool the rock is solid again.

31. Lava and Volcanoes Runny lava makes flat lava plains Slightly thicker lava makes broad shield volcanoes Thickest lava makes steep stratovolcanoes Lava on the surface does not come from the outer molten core. Hot solid rock melts when pressure is reduced. It is solid while hot because of pressure. Where does the pressure come from?

32. Outgassing Volcanism also releases gases from Earth’s interior into atmosphere, CO 2 and H 2 O, carbon dioxide and water vapor.

33. Tectonics Convection of the mantle creates stresses in the crust called tectonic forces Compression forces make mountain ranges Valley can form where crust is pulled apart

34. Plate Tectonics on Earth Earth’s continents slide around on separate plates of crust

35. Erosion Erosion is a blanket term for weather-driven processes that break down or transport rock Processes that cause erosion include –Glaciers –Rivers –Wind

36. Erosion by Water Colorado River continues to carve Grand Canyon

37. Erosion by Ice Glaciers carved the Yosemite Valley

38. Erosion by Wind Wind wears away rock and builds up sand dunes

39. Erosional Debris Erosion can create new features by depositing debris

40. How do the terrestrial planets have different geological histories?

41. Role of Planetary Size Smaller worlds cool off faster and harden earlier Larger worlds remain warm inside, promoting volcanism and tectonics Larger worlds also have more erosion because their gravity retains an atmosphere

42. Role of Distance from Sun Planets close to Sun are too hot for rain, snow, ice and so have less erosion More difficult for hot planet to retain atmosphere Planets far from Sun are too cold for rain, limiting erosion Planets with liquid water have most erosion

43. Role of Rotation Planets with slower rotation have less weather and less erosion and a weak magnetic field Planets with faster rotation have more weather and more erosion and a stronger magnetic field

44. Thought Question How does the cooling of planets and potatoes vary with size? a) Larger makes it harder for heat from inside to escape b) Larger has a bigger ratio of volume (which needs to cool) to surface area (the surface is where cooling happens) c) Larger takes longer to cool d) All of the above

45. Thought Question How does the cooling of planets and potatoes vary with size? a) Larger makes it harder for heat from inside to escape b) Larger has a bigger ratio of volume (which needs to cool) to surface area (the surface is where cooling happens) c) Larger takes longer to cool d) All of the above

46. How does a planet’s surface reveal its geological age?

47. History of Cratering Most cratering happened in first billion years A surface with many craters has not changed much in 3 billion years

48. Cratering of Moon Some areas of Moon are more heavily cratered than others Younger regions were flooded by lava after most catering Is this the side of the moon that faces us? No, not enough mares, large basaltic seas.

49. Cratering of Moon Cratering map of Moon’s entire surface

50. What have we learned? What processes shape planetary surfaces? –Cratering, volcanism, tectonics, erosion Why do the terrestrial planets have different geological histories? –Differences arise because of planetary size, distance from Sun, and rotation rate How does a planet’s surface reveal its geological age? –Amount of cratering tells us how long ago a surface formed

51. 9.3 Geology of the Moon and Mercury Our goals for learning What geological processes shaped our Moon? What geological processes shaped Mercury?

52. What geological processes shaped our Moon?

53. Lunar Maria Smooth, dark lunar maria are less heavily cratered than lunar highlands Maria were made by flood of runny lava

54. Formation of Lunar Maria Large impact crater weakens crust Heat build- up allows lava to well up to surface Early surface covered with craters Cooled lava is smoother and darker than surroundings

55. Tectonic Features Wrinkles arise from cooling and contraction of lava flood

56. Geologically Dead Moon is considered geologically “dead” because geological processes have virtually stopped This foot print will be here for a very long time.

57. What geological processes shaped Mercury?

58. Cratering of Mercury A mixture of heavily cratered and smooth regions like the Moon Smooth regions are likely ancient lava flows

59. Cratering of Mercury Caloris basin is largest impact crater on Mercury Region opposite Caloris Basin is jumbled from seismic energy of impact

60. Tectonics on Mercury Long cliffs indicate that Mercury shrank early in its history. Relief on round globes is never to scale; if it were you could not see the relief.

61. What have we learned? What geological processes shaped our Moon? –Early cratering still present –Maria resulted from volcanism What geological processes shaped Mercury? –Cratering and volcanism similar to Moon –Tectonic features indicate early shrinkage

62. 9.4 Geology of Mars Our goals for learning How did Martians invade popular culture? What are the major geological features of Mars? What geological evidence tells us that water once flowed on Mars?

63. How did Martians invade popular culture?

64. “Canals” on Mars Percival Lowell misinterpreted surface features seen in telescopic images of Mars

65. What are the major geological features of Mars?

66. Cratering on Mars Amount of cratering differs greatly across surface Many early craters have been erased

67. Volcanism on Mars Mars has many large shield volcanoes Olympus Mons is largest volcano in solar system

68. Tectonics on Mars System of valleys known as Valles Marineris thought to originate from tectonics, rifting (pulling apart).

69. What geological evidence tells us that water once flowed on Mars?

70. Dry Riverbeds? Close-up photos of Mars show what appear to be dried-up riverbeds

71. Erosion of Craters Details of some craters suggest they were once filled with water

72. Martian Rocks Mars rovers have found rocks that appear to have formed in water

73. Martian Rocks Exploration of impact craters has revealed that Mars’ deeper layers were affected by water

74. Hydrogen Content Map of hydrogen content (blue) shows that low- lying areas contain more water ice

75. Crater Walls Gullies on crater walls suggest occasional liquid water flows have happened less than a million years ago Some flows while our space crafts where watching in one case.

76. What have we learned? How did Martians invade popular culture? –Surface features of Mars in early telescopic photos were misinterpreted as “canals” What are the major geological features of Mars? –Differences in cratering across surface –Giant shield volcanoes –Evidence of tectonic activity

77. What have we learned? What geological evidence tells us that water once flowed on Mars? –Features that look like dry riverbeds –Some craters appear to be eroded –Rovers have found rocks that appear to have formed in water –Gullies in crater walls may indicate recent water flows

78. 9.5 Geology of Venus Our goals for learning What are the major geological features of Venus? Does Venus have plate tectonics?

79. What are the major geological features of Venus?

80. Radar Mapping Thick atmosphere forces us to explore Venus’ surface through radar mapping

81. Cratering on Venus Impact craters, but fewer than Moon, Mercury, Mars Its atmosphere, which is 90 times the pressure of the Earth’s, causes small objects to burn up before hitting and forming craters.

82. Volcanoes on Venus Many volcanoes, including both shield volcanoes and stratovolcanoes

83. Tectonics on Venus Fractured and contorted surface indicates tectonic stresses

84. Erosion on Venus Photos of rocks taken by lander show little erosion

85. Does Venus have plate tectonics? Most of Earth’s major geological features can be attributed to plate tectonics, which gradually remakes Earth’s surface Venus does not appear to have plate tectonics, but entire surface seems to have been “repaved” 750 million years ago, completely turned over estimated from cratering.

86. What have we learned? Our goals for learning What are the major geological features of Venus? –Venus has cratering, volcanism, and tectonics but not much erosion Does Venus have plate tectonics? –The lack of plate tectonics on Venus is a mystery. Not to me or Selwyn Sacks, who I heard lecture at CIW/DTM when I was a post doc there. Lack of water of Venus makes easy subduction difficult on Venus. He made this prediction before Magellan (space craft to Venus) mapped Venus.

87. 9.6 The Unique Geology of Earth Our goals for learning How do we know Earth’s surface is in motion? How is Earth’s surface shaped by plate tectonics? Was Earth’s geology destined from birth?

88. How do we know Earth’s surface is in motion?

89. Continental Motion Motion of continents can be measured with GPS

90. Continental Motion Idea of continental drift was inspired by puzzle-like fit of continents Mantle material erupts where seafloor spreads. 90% of the heat flow on the Earth is a mid-ocean ridges. Seafloor spreading happens there.

91. Seafloor Crust Thin seafloor crust differs from thick continental crust Dating of seafloor shows it is usually quite young Ocean crust young <200 million years and continental crust much older.

92. How is Earth’s surface shaped by plate tectonics? This vocabulary and arrows, direction of motion is real important. It will be on the test! You should have learned some of this in middle school, but that is a rough time for most of us. Actually when I was in middle school this was only taught in graduate school at Columbia University in geology.

93. Seafloor Recycling Seafloor is recycled through a process known as subduction and sea floor spreading near mid-ocean ridges.

94. Surface Features Major geological features of North America record history of plate tectonics

95. Surface Features Himalayas are forming from a collision between plates Continent- Continent collision.

96. Surface Features Red Sea is forming where plates are pulling apart This can form a new ocean given enough time and continued motion.

97. Rifts, Faults, Earthquakes San Andreas fault in California is a plate boundary Motion of plates causes earthquakes This is called a transform fault.

98. Plate Motions Measurements of plate motions tell us past and future layout of continents

99. Hot Spots Hawaiian islands have formed where plate is moving over volcanic hot spot. Hot spots in Hawaii and in New Madria, MO, and elsewhere account for the other 10% of the heat flow from the radioactive Earth’s bulk.

100. Was Earth’s geology destined from birth?

101. Earth’s Destiny Many of Earth’s features determined by size, rotation, and distance from Sun Reason for plate tectonics not yet clear, is to me partially, water!

102. What have we learned? How do we know that Earth’s surface is in motion? –Measurements of plate motion confirm idea of continental drift How is Earth’s surface shaped by plate tectonics? –Plate tectonics responsible for subduction, seafloor spreading, mountains, rifts, and earthquakes

103. Summary of Earth’s Plate Tectonics versus Venus’ and Mars’ feeble tectonic activity. Two types of plate material: thin, younger, more dense (~3gm/cm 3 ) Ocean Plates; and thick, older, less dense (~2.5gm/cm 3 ) Continental Plates. Density and isostatic equilibrium! Three different types of boundary motions between the two types of plates, and several more ways of joining to form a surface.

104. Different Action Types Spreading centers, pulling apart new lava here along lines. Volcanoes and Earthquakes. Subduction or convergence of plates: Earthquakes and possibly Volcanoes (but no Volcanoes in continent-continent collison like Tibet.) Transform faults, plates sliding by each other, but not being subducted. Earthquakes, but no Volcanoes.

105. You must be able to to do a labeled sketch with motions indicated by arrows for (will be on test): Ocean-Ocean Spreading Ocean-Ocean Convergence (subduction) Ocean-Ocean Transform fault Continent-Continent Spreading (what will eventually happen here if it continues) Continent-Continent Convergence/ Collision (no subduction) Continent-Continent transform fault Ocean-Continent Convergence/Collision

106. What have we learned? Was Earth’s geology destined from birth? –Many of Earth’s features determined by size, distance from Sun, and rotation rate –Reason for plate tectonics still a mystery. –Maybe to the authors of our textbook, but wet rocks behave differently than dry rocks. This is well known to seismologist, geochemist, and astrophysicist who have taught introductory Geology classes, like me, your instructor, Dr. Harold Williams.