1. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Social Contract

2. The Social Contract
Rousseauean Democracy

3. The Social Production of Liberty
“Man is/was born free, and everywhere he is in chains…”
Human history

4. The Social Production of Liberty
“Man is/was born free, and everywhere he is in chains…”
Human history
Primeval slime

5. The Social Production of Liberty
“Man is/was born free, and everywhere he is in chains…”
Human history
Modern society
Primeval slime

6. The Social Production of Liberty
“Man is/was born free, and everywhere he is in chains…”
No natural differences could conceivably put people in dependent position
Human history
Modern society
Primeval slime

7. The Social Production of Liberty
“Man is/was born free, and everywhere he is in chains…”
No natural differences could conceivably put people in dependent position
Human history
Modern society
Primeval slime
Yet today, vast majority of world’s population is being brutally oppressed

8. The Social Production of Liberty
The question Rousseau is raising, is how could naturally equal creatures get themselves in the position of allowing the convention that inequality is permissible?
How did we get into this situation?
Not by nature (Book I, chapter 2)
Not by justice (Book 1, chapter 3)

9. The Social Production of Liberty
Note the trajectory of history
Rousseau is not going to suggest that we can go backwards
We can choose specific states or conditions of our society, but we cannot decide whether or not to be members of society
Human history

10. The Social Production of Liberty
Need to find a way to build on the nature that we have and fashion institutions and social arrangements to foster liberty
Why liberty?

11. The Social Production of Liberty
“To renounce liberty is to renounce being a man, to surrender the rights of humanity and even its duties. For him who renounces everything no indemnity is possible. Such a renunciation is incompatible with man's nature; to remove all liberty from his will is to remove all morality from his acts.”
-- Social Contract, Book I, chapter IV

12. The Social Production of Liberty
What are the moral implications of selling or otherwise alienating our liberty?
If we could do something like that, we would be providing ourselves with the means of avoiding morality
To renounce liberty is like ceding our moral sense as we can claim our action was the result of slavery

13. The Social Production of Liberty
We can ask ourselves, what if everybody did that?
What if everybody was able to escape moral responsibilities by claiming that their actions were not authentically theirs?
Holding people accountable for their actions is part of what being free entails

14. The Social Production of Liberty
Liberty becomes integral to my conception of myself – to our definition of what a human being is – what is implied in saying this life is my life.
Personal life plans demands liberty
Liberty then means being in a position where I am not dependent on the will of any other person
Rousseau’s social contract (Book I, chp. vi)

15. The Social Contract But what kind of liberty are we talking about?
Natural liberty vs civil liberty (Book I, chp. 8)
Natural liberty is self defeating (recall PD)
Civil liberty
Not having to obey any laws except those which are in some sense an expression of my own will
Civil liberty is a human creation

16. The Social Contract
It is only with this type of liberty – with civil liberty – that we can say that we are free
And thus only with this type of liberty that we can be fully human
If we follow only those laws which are an expression of my will, then my life really is my life – every action will be an action I choose to do

17. The Social Contract
What do we say about a person who did not value this kind of liberty?
They are not being all that they could be, they are not fully human in that they are not participating in moral discourse
Rousseau is saying our humanity stems from the fact that we can reflect on the status of our affairs

18. The Social Contract We can ask questions like Animals can’t do this
How should I live?
What is justice?
What would be a good life for me? For you? For us?
Animals can’t do this

19. The Social Contract Problem is, how do we realize this in society?
For example… the more elaborate our social interdependence becomes, the more we have a division of labor
Each of us performs ever more exact functions
The more the specialization progresses, the greater the likelihood that some people will occupy strategically important positions
These people will be able to exploit their position to exercise power over others

20. The Social Contract

21. The Social Contract
How do we organize our social lives so that we can enjoy civil liberty?
How do we create a set of social institutions so that we trade natural liberty for civil liberty
Rousseau astutely builds his theory by using our dependence as the means of securing our liberty
Only way civil liberty will work is if it is a product of social cooperation

22. The Social Contract
“One who dares to undertake the founding of a people should feel that he is capable of changing human nature, so to speak; of transforming each individual, who by himself is a perfect and solitary whole, into a part of a larger whole from which this individual receives, in a sense, his life and his being; of altering man’s constitution in order to strengthen it; of substituting a partial and moral existence for the physical and independent existence we have received from nature” (Book 2, chp. vii).

23. The Social Contract
The only way civil liberty will work is if it is a product of social cooperation
Contrast with Locke’s view
Locke mistakenly postulates a liberty not predicated on the necessity of our social ties
The liberty Locke describes is the freedom to be unencumbered by societal considerations, each of us decides for ourselves whether or not to be part of the society

24. The Social Contract Rousseau argues that Locke is wrong
Society is not a club, not a voluntary organization
Locke errs by treating people in socially advantageous slots as if they were naturally advantaged and thus free to pack up and go home if the social arrangements are not to their liking

25. The Social Contract
Locke erroneously assumes property rights are natural rights and thus those who have property are free to defect from society when property is threatened
Rousseau is arguing that this is wrong since the property these individuals possess is secured by a system of social cooperation.

26. The Social Contract
So if Locke’s version of the social contract is incorrect, what type of social contract would be adopted?
Book 1, chp. vi
Rousseau’s contract presupposes that the only morally acceptable contract is one which insures that each person is at the same time governor and governed

27. The Social Contract
We should recognize that neither Hobbes’ nor Locke’s contract would be chosen by individuals ontologically structured such that they have liberty and liberty is the essence of humanity
Hobbes is easy to see, but what about Locke?
Recall thieves in alley example
Locke merely provides a peaceful way to make coercion regular

28. The Social Contract For example, look at modern U.S.
How are laws passed?
Hold elections where most people don’t vote
Where winners go through all this deal making to get laws passed in their own private interest
How are losers not at the mercy of the majority?
In what sense am I obeying only myself?

29. The Social Contract
The system is good insofar as it is better to count heads than to break them
But because the system stabilizes a situation does not make it just
Look at the contract Rousseau proposes
Create a process in which everything is alienated, but unlike Hobbes, we’re not giving it to any particular person or institution

30. The Social Contract
In other words, we need to develop a social decision making process whereby we can all submit to and become dependent on no one in particular
Need some sort of democracy where each person counts equally

31. Rousseauean Democracy
Is this the case in the U.S.?
Compromises reached are built on the inequalities which pervade the process at the start
In the US, we have dependency relations, and we’ve stabilized a bad social system, but…

32. Rousseauean Democracy
All that means is that when you have better or worse masters, you don’t have freedom, and we have no moral reason for not bolting from the master when we can
In US, we have a fairly stable, institutionalized way of making decisions, but it doesn’t make people free
What would it take to make people free?

33. Rousseauean Democracy
The only social decision process which would make people free – or, more exactly, secure their freedom – would be one where no one had more power or input than anyone else
How do we do that?

34. Rousseauean Democracy
Roots are democratic, since, equality is the basis of freedom and democracy is the only system which incorporates an egalitarian premise
But, instilling democratic institutions alone is insufficient for a morally acceptable democracy

35. Rousseauean Democracy
Three steps
Need to insure that the decision process is not based on prior social conditions that reflect power relations
Redistribute to insure that no socially strategic positions exist

36. Rousseauean Democracy
“I have already defined civil liberty; by equality, we should understand, not that the degrees of power and riches are to be absolutely identical for everybody; but that power shall never be great enough for violence, and shall always be exercised by virtue of rank and law; and that, in respect of riches, no citizen shall ever be wealthy enough to buy another, and none poor enough to be forced to sell himself: which implies, on the part of the great, moderation in goods and position, and, on the side of the common sort, moderation in avarice and covetousness.” -- Book 2, chapter 11

37. Rousseauean Democracy
Three steps
Need to insure that the decision process is not based on prior social conditions that reflect power relations
Redistribute to insure that no socially strategic positions exist
People don’t vote on private interests
Note: if we’ve done Steps 1 and 2 correctly, we will have no difficulty with this step
Two kinds of will:
Particular Will
General Will

38. Rousseauean Democracy
Particular will
Private considerations
Ask “what would be good for me”
Basis is narrow self interest

39. Rousseauean Democracy
General Will
Public considerations/collective interest
Ask “what would be good for us?”
General will is general in essence and object
Think of the Prisoners’ Dilemma matrix
The GW is like voting based on cooperative outcome

40. Rousseauean Democracy
Compare Rousseau’s democracy with modern U.S.
In US, need to vote on particular will or you will get hammered
Dependence? In US, the winners impose power on the losers
In Rousseau? Who are we dependent upon?
Since vote is on general will, we are not dependent on anybody