1. CSE3PE: Professional Environment Introduction to Ethical Theory

2. Ethical Theories Ethical Theories provide a framework for examining the underlying rationale of moral arguments classifying and understanding various arguments defending a conclusion about what is right or wrong Professional Environment2

3. Definitions Descriptive statements are statements about how people in fact behave e.g. some people think it is acceptable to copy software for private use. Normative (or prescriptive) statements are statements about how people ought to behave e.g. children should not be made to clean chimneys. 3Professional Environment

4. Ethical Theories Attempt to show that a particular set of rules or principles is valid for making moral decisions and provides a justification of the moral rules. Ethical relativism Consequentialism Deontological theories Professional Environment4

5. Ethical Relativism There are no universal moral rules. Moral rules are a product of a society or culture e.g. polygamy is acceptable in some societies. Moral rules can change over time e.g. slavery was once acceptable in America. People’s moral beliefs are shaped by their upbringing, even within a society e.g. acceptability of sex before marriage. Professional Environment5

6. Ethical Relativism Problems with ethical relativism How do we know what the standards of a society are? How can society’s standards be changed? (rules out rebellion) What is the source of normative theory? (What we ought to do?) Ethical relativists are descriptive ethicists and have no normative ethical theory. Professional Environment6

7. Consequentialism Consequentialism refers to any type of ethical theory in which right or wrong are based on the consequences of an action. Professional Environment7

8. Utilitarianism Utilitarians derive the principle of utility by asking what is so important, so valuable to human beings that it can be used to ground a theory of good. Instrumental good - things desired because they lead to something else e.g. money. Intrinsic good - things desired for their own sake e.g. happiness. Professional Environment9

9. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism has one simple moral principle: Everyone ought to act in ways which bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Utilitarianism provides a decision procedure - When faced with a decision about what to do the person should consider the alternatives, estimate the consequences of each alternative and choose the action that brings about the most net happiness (or good consequences). Professional Environment10

10. Problems with Utilitarianism Seems to tolerate or justify practices that our moral intuitions tell us are wrong. It supports the good for the greatest number, so individuals may be disadvantaged by it e.g. killing one person would provide organ transplants for ten people. Professional Environment11

11. Deontological Theories deon = duty (Greek) The emphasis is on the character of the act itself, not its effects. That is, an action is right or wrong according to the intrinsic character of the action. If an action is done from a sense of duty, that is, the action can be universalised, then the action is right. In contrast to utilitarianism some actions are always wrong no matter what the consequences. Professional Environment12

12. Basis of Deontological Theory Individuals are of value and must be treated accordingly The fundamental function of human beings is to be rational agents General deontological rule (Kant, 1785) - called the 'categorical imperative' "Never treat another human being merely as a means but always as an end in himself or herself." Professional Environment12

13. CASE A few years ago, when the kidney dialysis machine was first developed, only a few hospitals acquired a limited number of these expensive machines. How could/should it be decided which patients have access to these machines? Professional Environment12

14. Reference Johnson, D. (1994) Computer Ethics, 2 nd Ed., Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. 174.90904 JOHN Professional Environment12