1. Claude Goldenberg Stanford University Teaching English Language Learners: What the Research Does—and Does Not—Say

2. 2 classroom teacher school, district, or state administrator curriculum coordinator staff development specialist/trainer university educator or administrator researcher other Quick Poll Your primary professional role:

3. 3 Setting the stage… ELs--large, growing, diverse population(s) Almost everything about educating ELs is controversial ELs have language and academic needs Research is growing, but there are many uncertainties and controversies about effective approaches 4

4. 4 Presentation outline  U.S. English learner population  The ELL research base  Key conclusions from the research  Current and future directions

5. 5 Test your knowledge: ELL demographics Approx. what % of school-age population is ELL? Where were the majority of ELLs born? Approx. what % of ELLs are Latino? Demographically, how is the Latino population different from overall U.S. population?

6. 6 Who are “English learners”? Students who are not sufficiently proficient in English to be able to benefit adequately from mainstream instruction. States have explicit procedures for identifying ELs 5.1 million ELs in U.S. schools… >10% of the school-age population Nearly half of all teachers in the U.S. have at least 1 EL in their classroom 7

7. 7 Who are “English learners”? Students who are not sufficiently proficient in English to be able to benefit adequately from mainstream instruction. States have explicit procedures for identifying ELs 5.1 million ELs in U.S. schools… >10% of the school-age population Nearly half of all teachers in the U.S. have at least 1 EL in their classroom 7

8. 8 Who are “English learners”? Students who are not sufficiently proficient in English to be able to benefit adequately from mainstream instruction. States have explicit procedures for identifying ELs 5.1 million ELs in U.S. schools… ~10% of the school-age population Nearly half of all teachers in the U.S. have at least 1 EL in their classroom 7

9. 9 Who are “English learners”? Students who are not sufficiently proficient in English to be able to benefit adequately from mainstream instruction. States have explicit procedures for identifying ELs 5.1 million ELs in U.S. schools… >10% of the school-age population Nearly half of all teachers in the U.S. have at least 1 EL in their classroom 7

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11. 11 ELLs in U.S. schools ELL increase since 1990: 150%  1990: 5% of students are ELL (2 million)  2005: >10% of students are ELL (5 million)  2025: 25% predicted  2050: 40% predicted Most ELLs born in the United States 80% of ELLs are Latino

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17. 17 Achievement of ELLs Tend to lag behind in academic achievement, on virtually any measure: Standardized tests, NAEP, grades, graduation rates, post HS participation. Students of Mexican and Cent. Amer. descent -- by far the largest EL group--esp. at risk

18. 18 California’s ELLs, by language 10

19. 19 The U.S. Latino population Very diverse, but overall tends to be… younger (36%<18yrs old vs. 24% non Hisp whites) poorer (23%≥$35K/yr vs. 49%) less educated (57% ≥high school vs. 88%) …than native-born or other foreign-born US residents.

20. 20 Latino population (cont’d) More likely to be immigrant or child of immigrants than the rest of the US population (nearly 40% foreign born). Mexican-, Central American-origin have lowest levels of income and education; Cubans have highest. Within group differences as well.

21. 21 The ELL research base

22. 22 Historically, ELL research has been… Dominated by language of instruction debate Strongly ideological Surprisingly sparse on important topics (e.g., accelerating ELD) Insufficiently attentive to student outcomes Difficult to use as basis for practice

23. 23 Research base is changing Research consensus on some issues More research is looking at student outcomes Language of instruction not as dominant Similarities and differences in effective practices for ELLs & non-ELLs

24. 24 2 recent research syntheses National Literacy Panel (NLP) Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language- Minority Children and Youth (erlbaum.com) Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE) Educating English Language Learners (cambridge.org)

25. 25 Test your knowledge: Role of the primary language (L1) Does teaching children to read in their L1 help or hurt their reading achievement in L2? If ELLs are in “English immersion,” should their L1 be used at all?

26. 26 Key findings from the syntheses 1. Teaching children to read in L1 promotes achievement in L2. 2. Components of effective instruction generally apply to English learners. 3. Modifications or enhancements are necessary, primarily due to language limitations. * National Literacy Panel and Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE)

27. 27 1. Language of instruction L1 (e.g., Spanish) instruction is beneficial for L2 (e.g., English) achievement (5 meta-analyses). Effect size approximately.3-.4 (small to moderate; cf phonics instruction) Learning to read in L1 and L2 simultaneously Inconclusive data on length of time for L1 instruction 2way instruction very promising (benefits of bilingualism/biliteracy--beyond benefits for L2)

28. 28 Transfer of literacy skills from first to second language What is transfer? (positive and negative) Bottom line: Knowing academic skills in one language helps you learn academic skills in another

29. 29 L1 in “English immersion” Some data on effectiveness L1 “support” rather than L1 instruction-- * cognates * brief L1 explanations * preview-review * teach strategies in L1

30. 30 Test your knowledge: Effective instruction in English for ELLs Does teaching ELLs and teaching non ELLs require entirely different instructional strategies? How is effective instruction for ELLs and effective instruction for non ELLs alike? How are they different? Does “culturally-relevant” instruction improve achievement for ELLs?

31. 31 Key findings from the syntheses 1. Teaching children to read in L1 promotes achievement in L2. 2. Components of effective instruction generally apply to English learners. 3. Modifications or enhancements are necessary, primarily due to language limitations. * National Literacy Panel and Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE)

32. 32 2. Effective instruction generally applies across the board What works for L1 instruction generally works for L2: * clear goals and objectives * well-designed instruction and instructional routines * clear input and modeling * active engagement and participation * informative feedback * application of new learning * practice and periodic review * interaction with other students * frequent assessments, with re-teaching as needed.

33. 33 Results are generally, but not entirely, consistent with findings for L1 reading: phonemic awareness phonics oral reading fluency (mixed results) vocabulary reading comprehension strategies (weakest effects) writing Same applies to literacy instruction in L2

34. 34 Key findings from the syntheses 1. Teaching children to read in L1 promotes achievement in L2. 2. Components of effective instruction generally apply to English learners. 3. Modifications or enhancements are necessary, primarily due to language limitations. * National Literacy Panel and Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE)

35. 35 3. Adjustments are necessary when teaching ELLs in L2 Although many effective practices are similar for ELLs and non ELLs, interventions that target language and text comprehension skills tend to be less effective for ELLs. WHY? ELLs face the double challenge of learning academic content and the language of instruction simultaneously

36. 36 Possible adjustments target language AND content skills tasks must be very clear redundant information, e.g. gestures, visual cues pictures, demonstrations, “realia” graphic organizers (tables, webs, Venn diagrams) material with familiar content (cultural or background knowledge can influence comprehension) strategic use of L1 (e.g., cognates, other L1 support) extra practice and time responses commensurate with students’ language proficiency

37. 37 In sum…. Many promising ideas for promoting achievement (esp. in literacy) for ELLs But little data on the effects of instructional adjustments on ELLs’ achievement Too few studies to make determinations in any one area (e.g., relative effects of different ways to teach comprehension)

38. 38 Socio-cultural influences … the social contexts in which children and youth live and go to school… defined or influenced by group beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and practices, which are often related to social and political circumstances, material (or economic) resources, and/or their ethnic, cultural, or national origin and identity. Any of these factors, and in virtually any combination, can constitute "socio-cultural influences" and define a particular "socio-cultural group."

39. 39 Research on socio-cultural factors A wide gap between what is generally believed and what research supports With a few exceptions, surprisingly little research looks at cultural factors in relation to student outcomes Little experimental research that examines whether culturally-relevant instruction produces greater learning

40. 40 Socio-cultural influences: Familiar content Familiarity with content has a positive effect on literacy. * Reading comprehension (Arab students in Canada; Nigerian students learning in English) * Writing (British pre-school) “Familiarity” might not mean “cultural familiarity” * The “lived experience” (British pre-school; Latino students and reading comprehension) Language proficiency in relation to text language has far greater influence

41. 41 Socio-cultural influences: Parents Parents can have a positive effect on literacy outcomes. Highly motivated to help children succeed in school. Most have at least rudimentary literacy skills; many have more Virtually all will support school efforts to help children do well in school However, schools typically do not take advantage of this. Stereotypes and assumptions (“culture of poverty”) Parents don’t always spontaneously behave in the way educators expect Different roles and expectations in home countries

42. 42 Other socio-cultural influences “Culturally compatible” instruction can positively affect motivation, engagement, and participation (“participation structures” of Native Hawaiians) Little other evidence for the impact of cultural factors (aside from language per se) or social group factors (aside from socio-economic) on literacy outcomes. Achievement effects of culturally accommodated instruction for ELLs have not been shown (mastery learning vs. culturally adapted instruction)

43. 43 What’s an appropriate instructional framework for ELLs? L1 instruction should be used. As needed, students should be taught to transfer what they know in L1 to L2 learning tasks (don’t assume they know). Use effective teaching approaches! Teaching/learning in L1 and L2 can be approached in similar ways, but…. Adjustments or accommodations are needed due to language limitations; we have a promising list of these, but little data.

44. 44 What about English language development (ELD)? Little data on what type of ELD instruction is most beneficial Probably some combination of “form focused” and “communicative” approaches

45. 45 Areas of needed research: Curriculum and instruction 2-way language models that aim for bilingualism and biliteracy Accelerating English acquisition Use of L1 in English immersion How effective is sheltered/SDAIE and for what? Parent involvement that promotes advanced achievement Comprehensive/complex models to promote high levels of language (esp. vocabulary) and literacy development

46. 46 Areas of needed research: Culture and political issues If ELL students are taught in ways that are “culturally accommodated,” will their achievement improve? What should be the role of ELL students’ home culture in helping shape the school’s curriculum and instruction? Can ELL students’ achievement be enhanced by giving greater prestige and status to their culture and language?

47. 47 Challenges and directions for the future Ideology--language (for/against L1 use in school); socio-cultural-political issues (role of culture; social status; history of discrimination). Complexity--curriculum and instruction overlaid with language, culture, and socio-political dimensions. Opportunities--rather than exclusively liabilities and handicaps.