1. Patterns of Evolution Year 13 Biology

2. Revision of Yr 12 Work  Darwin’s Theory  Sources of Variation  Agents that change gene frequencies

3. Darwin’s Theories  Believed that species evolved from ancient forms  Species did not remain unchanged throughout time

4. Darwin’s theories  REASONING Species have high reproductive rates but selection pressures act to create a struggle for existence There is variation in offspring, some better adapted than other. Those best adapted will survive longer and therefore have an increased chance of passing on their favourable characteristics Fittest will survive Natural Selection

5. Sources of Variation  Three main sources of variation Crossing over Sexual reproduction/meiosis Mutations  The actions of these sources create variation by ‘mixing’ alleles into new combination or creating new alleles

6. Agents that change allele frequencies  Genetic Drift  Mutations  Gene flow  Founder Effect  Natural Selection

7. Genetic Drift  A change in allele frequencies of a population as a result of chance – random events  This happens in small populations where chance alone may play a considerable role  Bottleneck and founder effects are two situations where genetic drift can be significant.

8. Mutations  The ultimate source of variation  Can change equilibrium in populations by adding or taking away alleles therefore changing possible combinations  Also provides new material for Natural Selection

9. Gene Flow  Immigration/emigration  Introduce (or take away) alleles into a gene pool  When immigrants arrive from another population possessing a different gene pool, new alleles are introduced.  Can both increase or decrease genetic variation

10. Natural Selection  Sorts genetic variability and accumulates and maintains favourable genotypes in a population  Reduces genetic diversity within the gene pool but increases differences between populations  There are three types of Natural Selection Stabilising, directional and disruptive

11. Types of Selection  Stabilising selection - favours the average  Directional selection – one extreme favoured over the other and average  Disruptive selection – favours both extremes

13. The Species Concept  “A species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that is reproductively isolated from other such groups”  Boundaries between a species gene pool can be somewhat unclear. This leads to a continuous increase or decrease in characteristics as you move through a range of a species.

14. Cline  A cline is the pattern of variation of characteristics between adjacent populations.  Example: The NZ Tomtit shows a clinal variation in the length of the tail and wing. North Island tomtits have shorter tails and wings than the southern tomtits

15. Ring Species  When two apparently different species are joined by a series of geographical and structural intermediate types.  Circular cline that results in two ends of the cline overlapping. E.g. herring gull and lesser black-backed gull.  Adjacent populations can interbreed but not where the arms of the loop overlap.

16. Speciation  The formation of a new species is called speciation. Species definition – a group of organisms that normally interbreed in nature to produce fertile offspring, and belong to the same gene pool.  An important part of forming a new species is separation of the gene pool of a species from the gene pool of the parent population.

17. Speciation  Speciation can be separated into two types: 1. Allopatric  Is when a species population is separated by a geographical barrier.  Populations may experience geographic isolation due to such events as mountain building, changes in sea level, changes in river courses.  Complete pg 251

18. Speciation 2. Sympatric  Occurs when a sub-population becomes reproductively isolated in the midst of the parent population. Populations are said to be sympatric if their ranges overlap.  This can arise from a change in niche or lifestyle, where mating can be only between those who have adopted a new lifestyle or by the sudden appearance of a new species  Complete pg 253

19. HOMEWORK  Complete Biozone pages  245- 246 “The species concept”

20. Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms  These prevent populations of related species in the same area from interbreeding.  They may operate before fertilisation (prezygotic) or after fertilisation (postzygotic).

21. Prezygotic (before fertilisation)  Temporal  Behavioural  Structural  Spatial  Ecological  Gamete mortality See page 243 of Biozone for details

22. Postzygotic (after fertilisation)  Although the sperm and egg may fuse, there may be other problems along the path to the development of a fertile adult.  Hybrid Inviability  Hybrid Sterility  Hybrid Disadvantage

23. Stages in Species Development  See page 250 Biozone  Possible sequence of events in the development of two new species.  As time passes the amount of genetic variation increases and each group becomes more isolated from the other.  Geographical barriers, prezygotic and postzygotic mechanisms act to keep the two species isolated

24. Patterns of Evolution  Evolution may cause related species to become different (diverge) or unrelated species to become similar (converge)  Divergent Evolution – when one species evolves into two species  Convergent Evolution – occurs when largely unrelated species evolve similar features

25. Divergent Evolution  When an ancestral species diverges into two or more species that eventually occupy different ecological niches New species Ancestral species New Species  When many new species are formed it is called Adaptive Radiation

26. Adaptive Radiation  Like divergent evolution but is RAPID and gives rise to a large number of species that occupy different niches  Examples Galapagos Finches, NZ Hebe

27. Homologous Structures  Structural similarities that suggest organisms descended from a common ancestor.  Used to indicate evolutionary relationships  Examples Pentadactyl limb: bones of forelimb of air breathing vertebrates have similar bones arranged in a comparable pattern eg, bird’s wings, bat’s wings, dog’s leg, human arm

28. Convergent Evolution  Ancestors are different but different species come to resemble each other due to similar ecological niches and natural selection

29. Analogous Structures  Arise as a result of convergent evolution.  Structures are used for the same purpose in unrelated species, but have evolved from different origins.  Examples Streamlined body shape in the unrelated vertebrate groups: fish (sharks), mammal (dolphin) and bird (penguin) The eye in humans and the octupus

30. Other Ideas  Punctuated Equilibrium Instead of a gradual change, species stay the same for periods of time – most of a species existence is spent in stasis and little time is spent in active evolutionary change.

31. Other Ideas  Gradualism Assumes populations slowly diverge from one another by accumulating adaptive characteristics in response to different selective pressures.

32. Gradualism vs. Punctuated

33. Co-evolution  Each party in a co-evolutionary relationship exerts selection pressures on the other and, over time, the species become dependent on each other.  Examples Predator-prey relationships, parasite-host relationships, plants and their pollinators