1. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 10 The Senses

2. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Classification of Sense Organs General sense organs –Often exist as individual cells or receptor units –Widely distributed throughout the body

3. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Classification of Sense Organs Special sense organs –Large and complex organs –Localized grouping of specialized receptors

4. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Classification of Sense Organs Classification by presence or absence of covering capsule –Encapsulated –Unencapsulated (“free” or “naked”)

5. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Classification of Sense Organs Classification by type of stimuli required to activate receptors –Photoreceptors (light) –Chemoreceptors (chemicals) –Pain receptors (injury) –Thermoreceptors (temperature change) –Mechanoreceptors (movement or deforming of capsule) –Proprioceptors (position of body parts or changes in muscle length or tension)

6. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Converting a Stimulus Into a Sensation All sense organs have common functional characteristics –All are able to detect a particular stimulus –A stimulus is converted into a nerve impulse –A nerve impulse is perceived as a sensation in the CNS

7. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. General Sense Organs Distribution is widespread; single-cell receptors are common Examples –Free nerve endings—pain and crude touch –Meissner’s corpuscles—fine touch and vibration –Ruffini’s corpuscles—touch and pressure –Pacinian corpuscles—pressure and vibration –Krause’s end bulbs—touch –Golgi tendon receptors—proprioception –Muscle spindles—proprioception

8. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs The eye –Layers of eyeball Sclera—tough outer coat; “white” of eye; cornea is transparent part of sclera over iris Choroid—pigmented vascular layer prevents scattering of light; front part of this layer made of ciliary muscle and iris, the colored part of the eye; the pupil is the hole in the center of the iris; contraction of iris muscle dilates or constricts pupil

9. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs Retina innermost layer of the eye; contains rods (receptors for night vision) and cones (receptors for day vision and color vision) –Conjunctiva—mucous membrane covering the front surface of the sclera and lining the eyelid –Lens—transparent body behind the pupil; focuses light rays on the retina

10. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs –Eye fluids Aqueous humor—in the anterior cavity in front of the lens Vitreous humor—in the posterior cavity behind the lens

11. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs –Visual pathway Innermost layer of retina contains rods and cones Impulse travels from the rods and cones through the bipolar and ganglionic layers of retina Nerve impulse leaves the eye through the optic nerve; the point of exit is free of receptors and is therefore called a blind spot Visual interpretation occurs in the visual cortex of the cerebrum

12. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs Visual disorders –Refraction disorders Myopia (nearsightedness) is often caused by elongation of the eyeball Hyperopia (farsightedness) is often caused by a shortened eyeball Astigmatism is distortion caused by an irregularity of the cornea or lens

13. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs Conjunctivitis (inflammation of the conjunctiva) can interfere with refraction –Trachoma—chronic chlamydial infection –Acute bacterial conjunctivitis—highly contagious infection that produces a discharge of mucous pus –Conjunctivitis can be caused by allergies Strabismus—improper alignment of eyes –Eyes can converge (cross) or diverge –If not corrected, can cause blindness

14. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs –Disorders of the retina Retinal detachment can be a complication of aging, eye tumors, or head trauma Diabetic retinopathy—damage to retina from hemorrhages and growth of abnormal vessels associated with diabetes mellitus Glaucoma—intraocular pressure that decreases blood flow in retina and thus causes retinal degeneration Nyctalopia (night blindness) or the inability to see in dim light is caused by retinal degeneration or lack of vitamin A

15. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs Macular degeneration—progressive degeneration of central part of retina; leading cause of permanent blindness in elderly Red–green color blindness is an X-linked genetic condition in which certain colors are not seen properly; it is caused by an abnormality in the cones’ photopigments

16. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs –Disorders of the visual pathway Degeneration of the optic nerve resulting from diabetes, glaucoma, and other causes can impair vision Scotoma is the loss of only the central visual field when only certain nerve pathways are damaged Cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) can damage visual processing centers; example is acquired cortical color blindness

17. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs The ear –The ear functions in hearing and in equilibrium and balance Receptors for hearing and equilibrium are mechanoreceptors –Divisions of the ear External ear –Auricle (pinna) –External auditory canal »Curving canal 2.5 cm (1 inch) in length »Contains ceruminous glands »Ends at the tympanic membrane

18. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs Middle ear –Houses ear ossicles—malleus, incus, and stapes –Ends in the oval window –The auditory (eustachian) tube connects the middle ear to the throat –Inflammation called otitis media

19. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs Inner ear –Bony labyrinth filled with perilymph –Subdivided into the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea –Membranous labyrinth filled with endolymph –The receptors for balance in the semicircular canals are called cristae ampullaris –Specialized hair cells on the organ of Corti respond when bent by the movement of surrounding endolymph set in motion by sound waves

20. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs Hearing disorders –Conduction impairments Can be caused by blockage of the external or middle ear (e.g., cerumen and tumors) Otosclerosis—inherited bone disorder involving irregularity of the stapes; it first appears as tinnitus (ringing) then progresses to hearing loss Otitis—ear inflammation caused by infection; can produce swelling and fluids that block sound conduction

21. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs –Nerve impairment Presbycusis—progressive nerve deafness associated with aging Progressive nerve deafness can also result from chronic exposure to loud noise Ménière’s disease—chronic inner ear disorder characterized by tinnitus, nerve deafness, and vertigo

22. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs The taste receptors –Receptors are chemoreceptors called taste buds –Cranial nerves VII and IX carry gustatory impulses –Only four kinds of taste sensations—sweet, sour, bitter, salty –Gustatory and olfactory senses work together

23. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. Special Sense Organs The smell receptors –Receptors for fibers of olfactory or cranial nerve I lie in olfactory mucosa of nasal cavity –Olfactory receptors are extremely sensitive but easily fatigued –Odor-causing chemicals initiate a nervous signal that is interpreted as a specific odor by the brain