1. Unit 8: Part 2 Electric Circuits

2. Outline
Resistances in Series, Parallel, and Series–Parallel Combinations
Multiloop Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Rules
RC Circuits
Ammeters and Voltmeters
Household Circuits and Electrical Safety

3. Resistances in Series, Parallel, and Series–Parallel Combinations
Resistors in series all have the same current.

4. Resistances in Series, Parallel, and Series–Parallel Combinations
The sum of the voltages across each resistor equals the battery voltage; after some algebra this gives:
This formula is valid for any number of resistors in series.

5. Resistances in Series, Parallel, and Series–Parallel Combinations
Resistors in parallel all have the same voltage.

6. Resistances in Series, Parallel, and Series–Parallel Combinations
The total current is the sum of the currents through each resistor. After some algebra, we find for the inverse of the equivalent resistance:
In order to find the equivalent resistance, you will need to invert your result.

7. Resistances in Series, Parallel, and Series–Parallel Combinations
The equivalent resistance of resistors in series is always greater than any individual resistance in the series.
The equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is always less than any individual resistance in the array.

8. Resistances in Series, Parallel, and Series–Parallel Combinations
For combination circuits, simplify piece by piece.

9. Multiloop Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Rules
Many circuits are not pure series–parallel combinations; more sophisticated tools are necessary to analyze them.

10. Multiloop Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s first rule is the junction rule:
The sum of all current entering a junction must equal the sum of all current leaving it. Giving incoming current a positive sign and outgoing a negative sign,

11. Multiloop Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s second rule is the loop rule:
The sum of the potential differences around a closed loop is zero.
Sign conventions for traversing batteries and resistors are at left.

12. Multiloop Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Rules
Assign directional currents to each branch of the circuit.
Identify enough loops so that every branch is in a loop.
Apply the junction rule, keeping independent equations.
Apply the loop rule. You should have as many equations as there are different currents.

13. Capacitance
A pair of parallel plates will store electric energy if charged oppositely; this arrangement is called a capacitor.

14. Capacitance
The charge is related to the potential difference; the ratio is called the capacitance.
SI unit of capacitance: the farad, F

15. Capacitance For a parallel-plate capacitor,
The quantity inside the parentheses is called the permittivity of free space, and is represented by ε0.

16. Capacitance
The energy stored in a capacitor is the energy required to charge it:

17. Dielectrics
“Dielectric” is another word for insulator. A dielectric inside a capacitor increases the capacitor’s energy storage by an amount characterized by the dielectric constant, κ.

18. Dielectrics
A dielectric in an electric field becomes polarized; this allows it to sustain a larger electric field for the same potential difference.

19. Dielectrics
The capacitance of a capacitor containing a dielectric is increased:

20. Dielectrics
Inserting a dielectric into a capacitor while either the voltage or the charge is held constant has the same effect—the ratio of charge to voltage increases.

21. Capacitors in Series and in Parallel
Capacitors in series all have the same charge; the total potential difference is the sum of the potentials across each capacitor.
Note that this gives the inverse of the capacitance.

22. Capacitors in Series and in Parallel
We can picture capacitors in parallel as forming one capacitor with a larger area:

23. Capacitors in Series and in Parallel
Capacitors in parallel all have the same potential difference; the total charge is the sum of the charge on each.

24. RC Circuits
An RC circuit can be used to charge a capacitor through a resistor.

25. RC Circuits
When the switch in an RC circuit is closed, the current has its maximum value (all the voltage is across the resistor), and the voltage across the capacitor is zero. As charge builds up on the capacitor, the current decreases and the capacitor voltage increases.

26. RC Circuits Voltage as a function of time:
Current as a function of time:
The quantity RC has the dimensions of time, and is called the time constant.

27. RC Circuits
A charged capacitor may be discharged through a resistor; in this case no battery is needed.

28. Ammeters and Voltmeters
The deflection of a galvanometer is proportional to the current.

29. Ammeters and Voltmeters
An ammeter measures current. In order to do this, it must be connected in series; so as not to change the existing current significantly, its resistance should be as small as possible.

30. Ammeters and Voltmeters
A voltmeter measures voltage. In order to do this, it must be connected in parallel across the voltage to be measured; so as not to change the existing voltage significantly, its resistance should be as large as possible.

31. Ammeters and Voltmeters
Multirange meters have a selection of shunt and multiplier resistors, to optimize the measurement of currents and voltages of different magnitudes.

32. Household Circuits and Electrical Safety
Household wiring is done in parallel and protected by circuit breakers.

33. Household Circuits and Electrical Safety
Fuses are designed so the fuse strip melts and cuts the circuit if the current exceeds a predetermined value. Fuses are rated for different currents; the fuse rating should always match the maximum allowable current in the circuit. When a fuse burns out, it must be replaced.

34. Household Circuits and Electrical Safety
Circuit breakers are used in most newer homes. A bimetallic strip opens the circuit if the current becomes too high; if a circuit breaker trips, it can be reset.

35. Household Circuits and Electrical Safety
In order to provide needed protection, the fuse or circuit breaker needs to be on the “hot” side of the circuit.

36. Household Circuits and Electrical Safety
However, even on the hot side the fuse or breaker may not protect the circuit. If an internal wire touches the conductive casing of a tool or appliance, you can still get a shock. This can be
avoided by using a dedicated ground line. You can tell which devices have such a line; they have 3-prong plugs.

37. Review Equivalent resistance of resistors in series:
Inverse of the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel:

38. Review
Junction theorem: Algebraic sum of currents entering a junction is zero.
Loop theorem: Algebraic sum of voltage drops around a loop is zero.
Time constant for an RC circuit:
An ammeter measures current, and should have small resistance.
A voltmeter measures voltage, and should have a large resistance.