1. Chapter 5:
Structuralism

2. Titchener: Structuralism
Central task of psychology:
 analysis of conscious experience
These conscious experiences are dependent on a person
Central task of psychology: analysis of conscious experience (same as W)
What is conscious experience? What did he mean by that term? Different from W
To T it meant an experience that must have a person present for it to exist
(ex. temperature – if no person is there, it might be 100 degrees F, according to a thermometer
however, a person has to be there to say that it is hot, the “hotness” is the conscious experience)

3. Titchener: Structuralism
Psychology is different from other sciences because its subject matter requires the presence of a human being
Other sciences – subject matter is independent of experiencing persons
Psychology is different from other sciences because its subject matter requires the presence of a human being
Other sciences – subject matter is independent of experiencing persons
Different from W, who wanted study of psych to be exactly like other sciences

4. The content of conscious experience
Structural psychology: pure science
Only legitimate purpose:
to discover the facts (structure) of the mind
Applied aspects are not needed, and not scientific
Only appropriate subjects:
normal adult humans

5. The content of conscious experience
Titchener warned against stimulus error:
Confusing our human experiences of events (mental processes) as the actual events
Elements
Experience
Titchener warned against stimulus error:
Confusing our human experiences of events (mental processes) as the actual events
Titchener called these flawed human experiences the only proper “subject matter of psychology”
You might ask, ok, since humans have problems, are flawed somehow, why should we want to study it?
“apple”

6. The content of conscious experience
Introspection: Self-observation
Trained observers
Used detailed, qualitative, subjective reports
Of mental activities during the act of introspecting
Opposed Wundt's approach
Titchener interested in elements/parts, not “wholes”
Much more mechanisitc than Wundt
His observers were passive, impartial, mechanical instruments recording stimuli
Introspection: Self-observation
Trained observers
Used detailed, qualitative, subjective reports
Of mental activities during the act of introspecting
Opposed Wundt's approach
Titchener interested in elements/parts, not “wholes”
Much more mechanisitc than Wundt
His observers were passive, impartial, mechanical instruments recording stimuli
Called subjects “reagents”

7. The content of conscious experience
Titchener’s experimental approach
Experiment = an observation which had
Frequent repetition
Strict isolation (control)
Vary observations widely

8. The content of conscious experience
Examples of Some Experiments
Reagents swallowed a tube,
- Hot water poured down, experience described by reagent
- Repeated with cold water
2. Reagents wrote down descriptions of the sensations of urinating and defecating
3. Reagents made notes of sensations during sex, attached devices to measure physiological responses

9. Elements of consciousness
Proposed three elementary states of consciousness
Sensations:
sounds, sights, smells, etc
lead to perceptions
Images:
ideas made from sensations, memories
Affective states
emotion
Proposed three elementary states of consciousness
Sensations:
sounds, sights, smells, etc
lead to perceptions
Images:
ideas made from sensations, memories
Affective states
Elements for emotions like love, hate, sadness
Rejected Wundt’s idea of tridementional theory of emotions – thought only one dimension to emotion, that of pleasant/unpleasant

10. Elements of consciousness
Each element could be categorized
Quality:
attribute differentiating each element from the other , e.g., “cold,” “red”
Intensity:
strength, weakness, loudness, or brightness of sensation
Duration:
sensation’s path over time
Clearness
refers to amount of attention given to element
Last two added to Wundt
Sensations and images have all four
Affective states lack clearness - he thought that once attention was given to an element, it disappeared (although I think you could argue this)
Categories like those for physical elements, metals, inert gases, etc.
He later became more interested in these categorizing dimensions than on the elements themselves,
Even started considering looking at an experience as it occurs without breaking into elements
But Died before any real changes were made to his system

11. Elements of consciousness
Characteristics of mental elements
Discovered 44,000 basic and irreducible elements of sensation
Each is conscious
Each is distinct from all others
Each could combine with others to form perceptions and ideas
Characteristics of mental elements
Discovered 44,000 basic and irreducible elements of sensation
Each is conscious
Each is distinct from all others
Each could combine with others to form perceptions and ideas

12. Elements of consciousness
Defined three essential problems for psychology
Reduce conscious processes to simplest components (the bulk of his work)
Determine laws by which elements associated
Connect the elements with their physiological conditions
Same aims as natural sciences
First two same as for Wundt, difference – (two of Wundt’s combined into one) new idea, finding how elements related to physiology

13. Later in his Career…
Stopped talking about elements, and became more interested in the dimensions you could use to categorize elements (quality, etc.)
Considered changing name of movement (and method of collecting data) to “existential psychology,” which would emphasize experience as it occurs, without analysis or breaking it down to elements
Died before any real changes were made to his system

14. Criticisms of structuralism
Methodology:
Introspection
Had been attacked for a century or more
Kant, Comte, Maudsley
Titchener could not give an exact definition of what introspection meant
Freud proposes the unconscious, which said that part of our mind cannot be consciously experienced, and greatly affects our behavior
Sterility / artificiality of lab experiments
New specialties did not fit with Titchener’s definition of psychology (child psychology, animal psychology)
Most critics saying that the act of examining an experience would change that experience
Freud – which means, how could you possibly study the important things that are making behavior happen with introspection

15. Contributions of structuralism
Subject matter clearly defined
Research methods: good science
Introspection remains a viable method
Impact on cognitive psychology
Strong base against which others could rebel

16. Precursors to Functionalism
Chapter 6:
Precursors to Functionalism

17. Movement from acceptance of biblical creation story to curiosity about …
Many new species discovered: how could they all fit in Noah's ark?
Chimpanzees and orangutans available for viewing
Skeleton of gorilla and human strikingly similar
Fossils and bones of extinct species found
Constant change in everyday life; “Change was the order of the day”
Growing domination of science; industrial revolution

18. Darwin’s life HMS Beagle journey: 1831-1836
Worked on his theory of evolution for 22 years
Problems with physical health caused by anxiety
Alfred Russel Wallace: wrote Darwin about a theory of evolution similar to Darwin’s that Wallace developed in 3 days
 Darwin’s ethical dilemma
Captain of ship almost didn’t take him – thought Darwin’s nose indicated laziness
Captain was deeply religious, wanted scientist aboard who would search for evidence of creation, later blamed self for allowing Darwin on board, committed suicide eventually

19. Darwin’s life HMS Beagle journey: 1831-1836
Worked on his theory of evolution for 22 years
Problems with physical health caused by anxiety
Alfred Russel Wallace: wrote Darwin about a theory of evolution similar to Darwin’s that Wallace developed in 3 days
 Darwin’s ethical dilemma
Captain of ship almost didn’t take him – thought Darwin’s nose indicated laziness
Captain was deeply religious, wanted scientist aboard who would search for evidence of creation, later blamed self for allowing Darwin on board, committed suicide eventually

20. Darwin’s life
Darwin took friends’ suggestion to have Wallace’s paper and portion of his forthcoming book presented at scientific meeting on same day that Darwin’s son was buried
Darwin overwhelmed with new physical illness
Wallace not bitter over Darwin’s fame; Instead was happy to have brushed fame and content to have unconsciously spurred Darwin to complete his book
Illness gave him time to be alone and study

21. What Darwin said about himself…
Not clever, limited ability to follow abstract thought
Poor critic: admired work upon 1st reading; only after reflection perceived deficits
Memory “extensive, yet hazy”
Careful, astute, industrious observer and collector of facts
Love of natural science
Motivation to explain the observed, and to group facts under general laws
Hypothesis generation: free mind open to modification
Ample leisure; no need to earn income

22. Darwin’s life Darwin’s other work 1871: the descent of man
Evidence for human evolution from lower forms of life
Emphasized similarity between animal and human processes
1872: the expression of the emotions in man and animals
Expressions descended from behaviors that originally had a practical function
1877: “A biographical sketch of an infant”; Based on his son’s developmental stages

23. The Theory of Evolution
There is variation among members of a species
This variability is inheritable
Each member of a species participates in a struggle for survival
Only the fittest survive
Natural selection: process that leads to survival of organisms which adapt to the environment; those that can not adapt die
Generalized from Lamarck's and Malthus’ observations and principles to form his ideas

24. Recent Data The finches’ beaks: evolution at work
Finches’ evolution occurred quicker than Darwin predicted
Severe drought: food supply = large, “tough spiky seeds”
Only the 15% of finches with thickest beak could open seeds; many with slender beaks couldn’t and died
Thicker beaks = tool for adaptation
Offspring inherited that characteristic; 4-5% thicker beaks
Adaptation in one generation
Rain and floods: large seeds swept away; Only small ones left
Same cycle but reverse outcome as above: slender beaks a survival advantage
Only the most fit in a given environment lived
Galápagos islands:
Ideas almost right…

25. Protests to Evolution Evolution as a challenge to religion
Theory thought to negate Christian God
Laws about teaching evolution in schools
1972, Tenn minister
Darwin’s theory “breeds corruption, lust, immorality, greed, and such acts of criminal depravity as drug addiction, war, and atrocious acts of genocide”
The white supremacy argument
White sup argument:
people that believed in inherent superiority of whites used theory . Others protested idea and Darwin’s theory along with it

26. Herbert Spencer ( )
Social Darwinism: application of the theory of evolution to human nature and society
Coined the phrase “survival of the fittest”
all aspects of universe “evolved,” including human traits and social institutions
Promoted individualism and a laissez-faire economic system; opposed government interference
Individuals and institutions that fail to adapt should be allowed to perish
Utopian view: human perfection inevitable if nothing interferes with the natural order
Spencer: came to US in 1882 (was 62 years old then), very popular, wore ear muffs to block annoying outside intrusions
Social darwinism extended ideas of evolution and survival of the fittest beyond Darwin, in fact, Spencer was the one who coined the phrase “survival of the fittest”
In US evolution accepted eagerly, S went on to say that ALL things in universe followed this survival of the fittest principle, including human traits and social institutions, and that it should be allowed to operate freely, and then we would get only the best of human kind and what it could offer, and anything inferior would simply die out
Which foster ideas of individualism and laissez-faire attitude (gov. attempts to manipulate things would only harm things) people like Andrew Carnegie loved him
Also made sense to people who were in a pioneering society, where hard-work could make you rich, and they saw examples of survival of fittest, when people who could not adapt did not survive

27. Myth of male superiority
Derivative of variability hypothesis based on Darwinian ideas
Hypothesis: “the notion that men show a wider range and variation of physical and mental development than women; The abilities of women are seen as more average.”
Therefore, it was argued, women
Less likely to benefit from education
Less likely to achieve intellectually
Had less evolved brains than men
Showed a smaller range of talents than men
Led to common acceptance of inequality between sexes

28. Darwin’s influence on psychology
Hypothesis: continuity in mental functioning between humans and lower animals
Implied that study animal behavior vital to understanding human behavior
Goal of psychology became how organism functioned in adapting
Methods and techniques were broadened in scope
Increased focus on individual differences and their measurement

29. Animal psychology and the development of functionalism
Before Darwin: animals considered automata
After Darwin: the expression of the emotions in man and animals
Continuity between humans and animals
Search for evidence of intelligence in animals
Human emotional behavior: inheritance of behavior once useful to animals

30. Individual differences: Francis Galton (1822-1911)
The topic was considered inappropriate for psychology by Wundt and Titchener
Had been examined by Weber, Fechner, Helmhotz

31. Galton’s life Estimated IQ = 200 Diverse, novel ideas and inventions
Youngest of 9 children
Wealthy family
Pressured by father to study medicine; Didn’t like it
Entered Cambridge university to study mathematics
Traveled extensively; Wrote popular book, the art of travel
Cousin Charles Darwin published on the origin of species: Galton fascinated by theory of evolution, which guided his subsequent work
Estimated IQ = 200
Diverse, novel ideas and inventions (using fingerprints for ID, lock pick, periscope for seeing over people’s heads, meteorology)
Youngest of 9 children
Wealthy family
Pressured by father to study medicine; Didn’t like it
example of his curiosity – he started taking small samples of meds, started with A, ended at C when he took a strong laxative
Entered Cambridge university to study mathematics
Traveled extensively; Wrote popular book, the art of travel
Cousin Charles Darwin published on the origin of species: Galton fascinated by theory of evolution, which guided his subsequent work

32. Mental inheritance 1869: hereditary genius
Eminent men have eminent sons
Specific forms of genius inherited
Founded eugenics: improve inherited human traits through artificial selection
Applied statistical concepts to heredity problems
Eminence not a function of opportunity
Basically applied Darwin’s ideas of evolution to humans and mental abilities
Eugenics – we do it with animals after all

33. Statistical methods
Quetelet: first to apply statistical methods and normal curve to biological and social data
Galton
Assumed similar results true of mental characteristics
Developed mean and standard deviation
Produced correlation measure
Modern derivatives: methods for validity, reliability, factor analysis
Pearson’s r: for Galton’s discovery of regression toward the mean
R for regression – tendency to regress toward the mean

34. Mental tests Originated by Galton, but term from Cattell
Assumed: intelligence can be measured in terms of sensory capacities
Developed his own instruments
His tests were prototypes for standard psychology lab equipment
1884: established anthropometric laboratory
Aim: the definition of the range of human capacities of the entire British population
To determine its collective mental resources
His data
Statistically reliable (1985)
Provided information on developmental trends