1. Introduction: Politics and Political Science
Frank H. Brooks
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

2. Introduction to Political Science
What Is Politics?
Assumption I: Politics is necessary because of human selfishness, bias, and conflict
Madison (Federalist #51): “If men were angels, no government would be necessary.”
Human nature makes politics a challenge
Is this cynical? Realistic? Pragmatic?
Assumption II: Politics can be civilizing
Aristotle (Politics, Book III): “a state exists for the sake of a good life and not for the sake of life only; if life only were the object, slaves and brute animals might form a state”
Is this idealistic? A critique of existing states and politics?
Middle ground?
Otto von Bismarck: politics is “the art of the possible”
Aristotle (more): "a state is not a mere society, having a common place, established for the prevention of mutual crime and for the sake of exchange. These are conditions without which a state cannot exist; but all of them together do not constitute a state, which is a community of families and aggregations of families in well-being; for the sake of a perfect and self-sufficing life."
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

3. What Is Politics Really?
Etienne de la Boetie (The Discourse of Voluntary Servitude):
“Plays, farces, spectacles, gladiators, strange beasts, medals, picture, and other such opiates”
Distractions to dominate
Ambrose Bierce (The Devil’s Dictionary)
Politics is “a strife of interests masquerading as a contest of principles. The conduct of public affairs for private advantage”
Hypocrisy and corruption
Saddam Hussein
“Politics is when you say you are going to do one thing while intending to do another. Then you do neither what you said or what you intended.”
deviousness
De la Boetie (more): Politics is appealing to the base instincts: "The most intelligent and understanding amongst them would not have quit his soup bowl to recover the liberty of the Republic of Plato. Tyrants would distribute largess, a bushel of wheat , a gallon of wine, and a sesterce, and then everybody would shamelessly cry, ‘Long live the King!"
Hussein source (Aamer Madhani, “Saddam Hussein, ” Chicago Tribune, Dec. 30, 2006, pp. 1, 21):
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

4. What Is Political Science?
Scientific method applied to study of politics
Is this possible? Ethical?
How does political science differ from physical sciences?
Can politics be studied objectively? Should it be?
A set of related disciplines attempting to better understand politics
What is the subject matter (scope)?
Consider anatomy of discipline
Structure of departments, requirements for majors, prominent journals
Fields and subfields
Little consensus on scope or methods, especially now
Debates on conceptual and analytical framework
Convergence of formerly distinct fields
Political science and comparative politics
Most basic strategy of political science is comparison
Explanatory models evaluated by focused comparison of cases
Obviously central to field of comparative politics
Done also in studies of public policy, international relations, even political theory
Scientific method applied to study of politics
Is this possible? Ethical?
Can one apply hypotheses, testing, etc. to such phenomena? If so, is it ethical? If not, are there "systematic" ways of studying politics that come close to science?
How does political science differ from physical sciences?
Do those phenomena follow the same kinds of rules as "physical" phenomena? Does volition change the nature of causality?
Can politics be studied objectively? Should it be?
a set of related disciplines attempting to better understand politics
What is the subject matter (scope)?
What exactly is being studied? States? Voters? Constitutions? Processes, institutions, systems? This is an issue in physical science too, e.g. "Is an organism’s behavior best understood by looking at its genetic makeup or its environment?"
Consider anatomy of discipline
Structure of departments; major journals, etc.
Fields and subfields
As such, political science includes such major fields (genuses) as political theory, public policy, comparative politics, and international relations
Also includes subdivisions (species) such as history of political theory, formal theory, comparative public policy, American politics, international political economy, etc.
Little consensus on scope or methods, especially now
Debates on conceptual and analytical framework
Convergence of formerly distinct fields
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

5. Introduction to Political Science
Course Goals
Why study politics by comparing?
Curiosity
Analysis
Critique/reform
Describe
Appreciate similarities and differences between governments and politics in different countries
Systematize
Identify and categorize major political phenomena, institutions, policies, performance, and change
Analyze and explain
Examine how comparativists try to understand and explain these elements of government and politics
Apply to politics
How can we better understand (and fix?) contemporary political phenomena and changes
Why compare?
Appreciate similarities and differences between governments and politics
some countries important in their own right (unique, interesting, worth knowing more about)
some important for impact on us (threat, opportunity, etc.)
Consider major political phenomena, institutions, policies, performance, and change
what are the things one needs to know about to have a more systematic understanding of states and politics?
Key concepts such as state, authority, legitimacy, participation, stability, responsiveness
Examine how comparativists try to understand and explain these elements of government and politics
can develop theories about politics institutions, processes, and policies
can do this inductively through observation of particular cases, tho this typically not “generalizable”
can do this deductively (perhaps on basis of inductive conclusions)
formulate general theories and specific hypotheses
comparativists argue over what to study, how to study, and what are the best explanations of what they do study
Apply this to understanding contemporary political phenomena and changes
can help us to understand our own politics better
can help to overcome narrow perspective and complacency
can help suggest and guide reforms
i.e. studying comparative politics tends to be political
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

6. Scope of Comparative Politics
What is to be studied?
States
aka “government”
Political scientists distinguish between state, governments, regimes
Analytical concepts: institutions, processes, conflicts
Society
That which is governed
“object” of state’s actions; “subject” which directs state
Analytical concepts: class, religion, nationality, ethnicity, identity
Global Context
Not “International relations” per se, but relations between/among states and societies
Concepts: globalization, world systems, colonialism
Performance
What is actually done and accomplished
Concepts: policies, political economy
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

7. Introduction to Political Science
Scope II
Political Systems v. Political Change
Which is more essential: what persists or what changes/develops?
“metaphysics” of politics
Systems
“static” explanation – order, organic
Concepts and approaches: “behavioralism” and functions
Change
Cycles, decline and progress
Examples: Modernization theory, explanations of revolution, theories of democratization
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

8. Introduction to Political Science
Methods of Comparison
Description v. Comparison
Large “N” v. Small “N”
Can Comparative Politics be a Science?
Major methods
Case studies
Statistical analysis
Structured, focused comparison
Regional studies
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

9. Introduction to Political Science
Key Concepts
Quick review of major definitions
Politics
State, Regime and Government
Power v. Authority
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

10. Introduction to Political Science
Politics
“the struggle in any group for power that will give one or more persons the ability to make decisions for the larger group” (O’Neil, p. 3)
Binding on group members
Size and nature of groups varies
Could be seen as “process,” but more realistically as “struggle”
Narrower: “the struggle for the authority to make decisions that will affect the public as a whole”
Binding on “public as a whole”
Authority and power are key concepts
“the struggle in any group for power that will give one or more persons the ability to make decisions for the larger group” (O’Neil, p. 3)
other political science definitions: “the process by which groups make collective decisions”
Binding on group members
Size and nature of groups varies
Nations, ethnic groups can be millions
Unions, clubs, corporations, associations
Families, relationships (“the personal is political”)
Could be seen as “process,” but more realistically as “struggle”
Voting and discussion
Bargaining and compromise
Conflict and violence
Narrower: “the struggle for the authority to make decisions that will affect the public as a whole”
Binding on “public as a whole”
Authority and power are key concepts
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

11. Introduction to Political Science
State
Max Weber: “a human community that (successfully) claims a monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory”
“the authoritative decision-making institutions for an entire society, to which all other groups, institutions and persons are legally subject”
Definitions of “state” beg definition of constituent concepts:
Territory (society) – where/over what does state rule?
Techniques – force, decisions
Sovereignty (degree, internal v. external)
Authority and legitimacy
“a human community that (successfully) claims a monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory”
Focus on force problematic
Is it the state’s defining, fundamental characteristic?
state isn’t only group to in a society to use force
often isn’t only group to use force legitimately (e.g. self-defense, protection agencies)
state practically “regulates” the legitimate use of force
Is force necessary?
not most of the time, or at least threat of force may be sufficient
reliance on force typically indicates weakness
Is force sufficient?
no, it’s the “legitimate” use of force
exclusive reliance on physical force per se cannot maintain power in long run
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

12. Introduction to Political Science
Regime v. Government
Regime
Often connotes illegitimate system of governing
More neutrally, the “fundamental rules and norms of politics” (O’Neil, p. 22)
Government
Broad definition: “A regular and settled pattern of decision-making”
Orderly and patterned, not spontaneous
Can apply to many organizations, e.g. universities, clubs, churches, unions
Narrow definition: “the leadership or elite in charge of running the state” (O’Neil, p. 23)
Relationship of state, regime and government
State is administration, sovereignty (basic structural unit) – the “what”
Regime is processes for running the state – the “how”
Government is the particular personnel and policies at a given time – the “who”
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

13. Introduction to Political Science
Power
Not equivalent to force
Power to v. power over
Three forms of power (Boulding)
The stick – “use force”
The deal – “make deals”
The kiss – “create commitments”
“Invisible” power (Lukes)
Not equivalent to force
physical force (or threat of it) definitely a source (or technique) for exercising power, but not the only one
other sources include money, connections, public opinion, ideology, organization (and these not just means to acquire force or make it more efficient
Power to v. power over
power to – capacity to achieve things
Talcott Parsons: “capacity of a government to draw on the commitments of its citizens so as to achieve common goals”
technical capacity to accomplish shared vision, but downplays conflict
power over – focuses on conflict; getting one’s way in the face of opposition
Three forms of power (Kenneth Boulding)
The stick – “use force”
focus on military and police as instruments and threats and coercion as tactics
necessary, but not sufficient
effectiveness of force relies on fear (Machiavelli)
e.g. foreign invasions (Soviet Union into Czechoslovakia 1968), domestic suppression (Waco 1993)
The deal - “make deals”
exchange relationships and political “contracts”
relies on interest (rather than fear) (cf. Locke’s justification of government)
position, connections, organization all important instruments; bargaining central tactic
The kiss – “create obligations”
inspire loyalty and respect to make acquiescence voluntary
relies on sense of commitment (cf. Rousseau’s focus on “general will”)
patriotism, nationalism, ideology key instruments; propaganda and symbolism important tactics
is voluntary acquiescence “power”? – not power over, but possibly power to
“Invisible” power (Stephen Lukes)
“power is exercised whenever the real interests of people are ignored, even if these people are unaware of their interests”
seems to be difficult to measure, impossible to falsify
nevertheless plausible, if looked at more narrowly, e.g. agenda-setting (especially keeping items off the agenda), controlling information, creating/manipulating wants and “senses of possibility”
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science

14. Introduction to Political Science
Authority
Distinct from power
Machiavelli – creating obedience
Right to rule
Weber’s bases of authority
Traditional
Charismatic
Legal-rational
Distinct from power
power per se not sufficient for the continued existence and effectiveness of the state
authority is thus “legitimate” power (static); dynamically, political leaders must make power legitimate and thus maintain their authority
Machiavelli – creating obedience
in The Prince, argues that fear of violence will create obedience
habitual obedience may become allegiance, especially for unambitious masses (who want mostly to be left alone)
providing services to governed in order to secure their “love” is dangerous, because masses are fickle (likely to ask “what have you done for me lately?”
in The Discourses, however, Machiavelli considers republics and the ways in which authority can be built on commitments
Right to rule
exists when subordinates recognize the right of superiors to give orders
don’t have to agree with the substance of the orders, just the right to give them
can come from legitimacy of person (e.g. monarchy, military chain of command), or from legitimacy of decision-making process or institution
Weber’s bases of authority
Traditional
e.g. divine right of kings (creation of absolutism somewhat different)
e.g. Saudi monarchy (“return” to traditional authority in fundamentalism also different
Charismatic
e.g. Hitler, Khomeini, Hussein
based on relationship between particular ruler and ruled, not on intrinsic quality of leadership (or historical embeddedness) – cf. creation of “cult of personality”
tends to be short-lived
can be extended by maintaining dependence on leader (e.g. war, “permanent revolution”)
can be extended through “routinization” (i.e. transforming it into legal-rational authority)
Legal-rational
based in “rule of law”
can be established at beginning of regime, even by charismatic leader
e.g. George Washington refused titles and stepped down voluntarily after 2 terms
e.g. Konrad Adenauer – conferred legitimacy on imposed institutions
April 21, 2017
Introduction to Political Science