1. Diagnosing
Aubrey Y. Go, RN,MD

2. Nursing Diagnosis Definition: NANDA, 1990
Nursing diagnosis is a clinical judgment about individual, family, or community responses to actual or potential health problems/life processes. Nursing diagnosis provides the basis for selection of nursing interventions to achieve outcomes for which the nurse is accountable

3. Diagnosis the second step in the nursing process
begins after the nurse has collected and recorded the patient data

5. Purposes of the Diagnosing Step
Identify how an individual, group, or community responds to actual or potential health and life processes
Identify factors that contribute to, or cause, health problems (etiologies)
Identify resources or strengths upon which the individual, group, or community can draw to prevent or resolve problems

6. Diagnosing

7. Nursing Diagnosis
purpose - to clarify the exact nature of the problems and risk factors you need to achieve the overall expected outcomes of care.
- If you do not completely understand the problems contributing to them, how are going to know what to do about them?

8. Nursing Diagnosis
conclusions made during this phase affect the entire plan of care
- if correct, your plan is likely to be on target
- if not — operating on assumptions, rather than sound reasoning that is based on evidence— plan is likely to be flawed, maybe even dangerous.

9. Nursing Concerns and Responsibilities (Alfaro, 2004)
Monitoring for changes in health status
Promoting safety and preventing harm
Identifying and meeting learning needs
Promoting comfort and managing pain
Promoting health and well-being
Addressing problems that limit independence
Determining human responses

10. Types of Diagnoses Nursing diagnosis Medical diagnosis
Describes patient problems nurses can treat independently
Medical diagnosis
Describes problems for which the physician directs the primary treatment
Collaborative problems
Managed by using physician-prescribed and nursing-prescribed interventions
Collaborative problems – “certain physiologic complications that nurses monitor to detect onset or changes in status.
- primary responsibility of nurses; prescription for treatment comes from nursing, medicine, and other disciplines

11. Collaborative Problems
Alfaro rule: “PC (potential for complications) followed by a colon, and list the complications that might occur. For clarity, link the potential complications and the collaborative problem by using “related to”

12. Critical Thinking and Nursing Diagnosis
Be familiar with nursing diagnoses and other health problems; read professional literature and keep reference guides handy.
Trust clinical experience and judgment, but be willing to ask for help when the situation demands more than your qualifications and experience can provide.

13. Respect your clinical intuitions, but before writing a diagnosis without evidence, increase the frequency of your observations and continue to search for cues to verify your intuition.
Recognize personal biases and keep an open mind.

14. Questions to facilitate critical thinking during diagnostic reasoning
Are my data accurate and complete?
Has the patient or the patient's surrogates validated (if able to do so) that these are important problems?
Have I given the patient or the patient's surrogate an opportunity to identify problems that I may have missed?
Is each diagnosis supported by evidence? Might these cues signify a different problem or diagnosis?

15. Have I tried to identify what is causing the actual or potential problem, and what strengths or resources the patient might use to avoid or resolve the problem?
Have I used agency guidelines to correctly document diagnostic statements in a way that clearly communicates patient problems to other healthcare professionals?
Is this a problem that falls within nursing's independent domain or does it signify a medical diagnosis or collaborative problem?

16. Four Steps of Data Interpretation and Analysis
Recognizing significant data
Comparing data to standards
Recognizing patterns or clusters
Identifying strengths and problems
Reaching conclusions

17. Question
A nurse decides that a patient has a possible problem with high blood pressure. During which step of data interpretation would this most like be determined?
A. Recognizing significant data
B. Recognizing patterns or clusters
C. Identifying strengths and problems
D. Reaching conclusions

18. Answer
Answer: D. Reaching conclusions Rationale: A possible problem, such as high blood pressure, is diagnosed as a conclusion of data interpretation. Recognizing significant data refers to the comparison of data to a standard or norm (e.g., normal blood pressure values). A data cluster is a grouping of patient data or cues that points to the existence of a problem (e.g., a series of readings). The nurse must then identify strengths and problems and determine if the patient is motivated to address them.

19. Reaching Conclusions No problem Possible problem
Actual or potential nursing diagnosis
Clinical problem other than nursing diagnosis

20. Question
A patient who admits to smoking two packs of cigarettes a day is diagnosed with lung cancer based on his symptoms and a series of test results. Which of the following is the etiology in this scenario? A. Lung cancer B. Test results C. Smoking cigarettes D. The subjective and objective data

21. Answer
Answer: C. Smoking cigarettes Rationale: The etiology is the factor that maintains the unhealthy condition (smoking cigarettes). Lung cancer is the problem, and the remaining factors are the distinguishing characteristics.

23. Formulation of Nursing Diagnoses
Problem—identifies what is unhealthy about patient
Etiology—identifies factors maintaining the unhealthy state
Defining characteristics—identifies the subjective and objective data that signal the existence of a problem

24. Types of Nursing Diagnoses
Actual
a problem that has been validated by the presence of major defining characteristics
Risk
clinical judgments that an individual, family, or community is more vulnerable to develop the problem than others in the same or similar situation

25. Types of Nursing Diagnoses
Possible
statements describing a suspected problem for which additional data are needed. Additional data are used to confirm or rule out the suspected problem.
Wellness
clinical judgments about an individual, group, or community in transition from a specific level of wellness to a higher level of wellness.

26. Two cues must be present for a valid wellness diagnosis:
A desire for a higher level of wellness
An effective present status or function
Readiness for enhanced…

27. Types of Nursing Diagnoses
Syndrome
comprise a cluster of actual or risk nursing diagnoses that are predicted to be present because of a certain event or situation
Rape-Trauma Syndrome
Post-Trauma Syndrome.

28. PARTS OF A NURSING DIAGNOSIS

29. Parts of a Nursing Diagnosis
Problem
describe the health state or health problem of the patient
clear and concise
suggests patient outcomes
NANDA quantifiers: ability, anticipatory, balance, compromised, decreased, deficient, defensive, delayed, depleted, disproportionate, disabling, disorganized, disturbed, dysfunctional, effective, excessive, functional, imbalanced, impaired, inability, increased, ineffective, interrupted, low, organized, perceived, and readiness for enhanced

30. Parts of a Nursing Diagnosis
Etiology
identifies the physiologic, psychological, sociologic, spiritual, and environmental factors believed to be related to the problem
either a cause or a contributing factor.
directs nursing intervention to be efficient and effective

31. Parts of a Nursing Diagnosis
Defining Characteristics
subjective and objective data that signal the existence of the actual or potential health problem
suggest evaluative criteria

32. Four Components of a NANDA Nursing Diagnosis
Label
Definition
Defining characteristics
Related factor

33. Four Components of a NANDA Nursing Diagnosis
Label
Imbalanced Nutrition: More Than Body Requirements (1975, 2000).
Definition
Intake of nutrients that exceeds metabolic needs.

34. Four Components of a NANDA Nursing Diagnosis
Defining Characteristics
Triceps skin fold greater than 25 mm in women, greater than 15 mm in men
Weight 20% over ideal for height and frame
Eating in response to external cues, such as time of day, social situation
Eating in response to internal cues other than hunger (eg, anxiety)
Reported or observed dysfunctional eating pattern (eg, pairing food with other activities)
Sedentary activity level
Concentrating food intake at the end of the day

35. Four Components of a NANDA Nursing Diagnosis
Related Factors
Excessive intake in relation to metabolic need.

36. GUIDELINES FOR WRITING NURSING DIAGNOSES

37. Guidelines for Writing Nursing Diagnoses
Phrase the nursing diagnosis as a patient problem or alteration in health state rather than as a patient need.
Check to make sure that the patient problem precedes the etiology and that the two are linked by the phrase “related to.”

38. Guidelines for Writing Nursing Diagnoses
Defining characteristics, when included in the nursing diagnosis, should follow the etiology and be linked by the phrase “as manifested by” or “as evidenced by.”
Write in legally advisable terms.

39. Guidelines for Writing Nursing Diagnoses
Use nonjudgmental language.
Be sure the problem statement indicates what is unhealthy about the patient or what the patient wants to change (enhance).

40. Guidelines for Writing Nursing Diagnoses
Avoid using defining characteristics, medical diagnoses, or something that cannot be changed in the problem statement.
Reread the diagnosis to make sure the problem statement suggests patient outcomes and that the etiology will direct the selection of nursing measures.

41. VALIDATING NURSING DIAGNOSES

42. yes or no?
Is my database sufficient, accurate, and supported by nursing research?
Does my synthesis of data (significant cues) demonstrate the existence of a pattern?
Are the subjective and objective data I used to determine the existence of a pattern characteristic of the health problem I defined?

43. yes or no?
Is my tentative nursing diagnosis based on scientific nursing knowledge and clinical expertise?
Is my tentative nursing diagnosis able to be prevented, reduced, or resolved by independent nursing action?
Is my degree of confidence above 50% that other qualified practitioners would formulate the same nursing diagnosis based on my data?

44. Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false. A nursing diagnosis may be used to seek reimbursement for nursing services. A. True B. False

45. Answer
Answer: A. True
A nursing diagnosis may be used to seek reimbursement for nursing services.

46. Benefits of Nursing Diagnoses
Individualizing patient care
Allow patient to be informed and participate in their care
Improve communication among nurses and healthcare professionals
Defining domain of nursing to healthcare administrators, legislators, and providers

47. Benefits of Nursing Diagnoses
Seeking funding for nursing and reimbursement for nursing services
Define curriculum content and to direct specialization and advancement in nursing and nursing research

48. Limitations of Nursing Diagnosis
If used incorrectly, patient might be “misdiagnosed”
Nursing practice might be restricted

49. Question
Which of the following nursing diagnoses is written correctly? A. Child Abuse related to maternal hostility B. Breast Cancer related to family history C. Deficient Knowledge related to alteration in diet D. Imbalanced Nutrition related to insufficient funds in meal budget

50. Answer
Answer: D. Imbalanced Nutrition related to insufficient funds in meal budget Rationale: Answer A makes legally inadvisable statements, answer B is a medical diagnosis, and answer C reverses the clauses in the statement.

51. Common Sources of Error in Nursing Diagnoses
Premature diagnoses based on incomplete database
Erroneous diagnoses resulting from inaccurate or faulty database
Routine diagnoses resulting from failure to tailor data to patient
Errors of omission

52. Legal Alert: Alfaro's Rule
The terms diagnose and diagnosis have legal implications. They imply that there is a specific problem that requires management by a qualified expert.
If you make a diagnosis, it means that you accept accountability for accurately naming and managing the problem.

53. Legal Alert: Alfaro's Rule
If you treat a problem or allow a problem to persist without ensuring that the correct diagnosis has been made, you may cause harm and be accused of negligence.

54. Legal Alert: Alfaro's Rule
You are accountable for detecting, identifying, or recognizing signs and symptoms that might indicate problems beyond your expertise.
Example: Staff nurses are not qualified to diagnose and manage pneumonia independently.

55. However, they are accountable for:
Detecting and reporting signs and symptoms of pneumonia (fever, productive cough, malaise)
Diagnosing and managing risk factors for pneumonia (weak breathing efforts due to surgical pain, spinal cord injury, or disease; in complicated cases, these risk factors may require medical management)

56. Diagnosing and managing human responses to pneumonia (for example,
fatigue and problems with airway clearance related to pneumonia)
Ensuring that the medical treatment plan is implemented as prescribed (Alfaro-LeFevre, 2004, p. 77)