1. Social Psychology
Social Psychology looks at both intrapersonal (attitudes, persuasion, social cognition, cognitive dissonance) and interpersonal (relations with others, group dynamics, social influence, interpersonal attraction) phenomena
Discovering Psychology - The Power of the Situation

2. Attribution Process and Theory
How we attach meaning to other’s behavior, or our own, is called attribution
Attribution theory (Fritz Heider) People naturally see cause and effect relationships and seek to explain behavior

3. Attribution Process and Theory
Attribution theory (Fritz Heider)
Dispositional versus situational attribution
Fundamental attribution error (others)
Self-serving bias (also defensive attribution) self only
Actor-observer effect
Why were you late for class? Why was Jimmy late for class?
Why did you fail the Psych test? Jimmy?
Just-world hypothesis

4. Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance The tension caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously. Includes attitudes and beliefs, and actions
The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people seek to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors in order to seek cognitive consistency (Festinger)

5. Cognitive Dissonance: Attitudes and Actions
According to Leon Festinger we seek cognitive consistency by bringing our attitudes closer to our actions called theory of cognitive dissonance or balance theory
Tedious task experiment $$ (Festinger)
Festinger CD
A(ttitude)-B(ehavior) Problem – To what extent do behaviors affect attitudes? Can one predict the other?

6. Cognitive Dissonance and Behavior
Role playing Subjects in a role often begin to “become” the role. Behavior affects attitudes and reduces dissonance (e.g. role playing – “I’m a teacher, dad, scholar…”)
Zimbardo prison pathology experiments
Foot-in-the-door theory The tendency for people who agree to a small request to comply later with a larger one (cheating, lying, drug use, torture…it’s a slippery slope!). Reduces initial dissonance. Milgram experiment
Effort justification the tendency to find something more attractive if you have to work hard to achieve it, Examples?

7. Role Playing and Zimbardo
Zimbardo prison experiments
Role playing and deindividuation and situational influences
ZimbardoPE
Zimbardo DN
The Stanford Prison Experiment

8. Deindividuation
Deindividuation into a group results in a loss of individual identity and a gaining of the social identity of the group. Examples?
Anonymity
Diffused responsibility
Group size
The Lucifer Effect: Abu Ghraib
Daily Show Zimbardo

9. Social Influence and Conformity & Obedience
Conformity influences the maintenance of social norms and allows society to function smoothly
Behavior is contagious, modeled by one followed by another. We follow behavior of others to conform
Other behaviors may be an expression of compliance (obedience) toward authority
Conformity Obedience

10. Social Conformity (Asch)
Asch’s conformity experiments
Asch study
What are the factors which affect degree of conformity?
Normative social influence v. Informational social influence

11. Reasons for Conformity
Normative Social Influence Results from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid rejection. Public compliance, but doubt. Number, strength and immediacy. Asch Conformity Studies
Two polar bears are sitting in a bathtub. The first one says, "Pass the soap". The second one says, "No soap, radio!" (anti-humor – false and negative understanding)
ConformityCC

12. Reasons for Conformity
Informational Social Influence Look to group to make accurate judgments
Also called social proof occurs most often when
The situation is ambiguous.
There is a crisis. We have no time to think and experiment. A decision is required now!

13. Other Types of Conformity Phenomena
Chameleon effect
Mood linkage (emotional or social contagion)
Suggestibility

14. Obedience to Authority
The Milgram Experiments
Milgram Video
The Power of the Situation

15. Social Obedience (Milgram)
Results and Explanations for Milgram’s Obedience to Authority experiments
Socialization (normative influence)
Foot in the door phenomenon
Perception of legitimate authority
Diffusion of responsibility
Inaccessibility of values
Lack of social comparison
Physical and psychological buffers (proximity, depersonalization)
Ethicality of the experiment?

16. Social Identity Theory and Prejudice
Social Identity Theory Identity is formed through the groups to which we belong. We are motivated to improve the image and status of our own group in comparison with others (Tajfel)
Categorizing people (including oneself) into ingroups or outgroups affects perceptions, attitudes, and behavior
We join any group readily and go out of our way to make our own group look better than others (source of prejudice and discrimination) Tajfel and Social Identity Theory

17. Social Identity Theory and Prejudice

18. Group Dynamics and Prejudice
Sherif’s Robbers Cave experiment (1961)
Realistic Conflict Theory Limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in prejudice, discrimination and stereotypes within a society
In Group homogeneity and Out Group bias (basis of stereotype and prejudice). Stages: 1) In Group formation 2) friction and competition and 3) integration
Superordinate goals
Contact hypothesis
GRIT
PsyBlog: War, Peace and the Role of Power in Sherif's Robbers Cave Experiment

19. Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice is an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice underlies the behavior of discrimination
Components of Prejudice
Beliefs (stereotypes)
Emotions (hostility, envy, fear)
Predisposition to act (to discriminate)

20. Social, Emotional and Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
Social inequality, social division and emotional outgroup and ingroup bias
An outlet for blame, anger and resentment Scapegoat Theory
Just world phenomenon

21. Unconscious Prejudice
Prejudice works at the conscious and [even more at] the unconscious level. Prejudice is more a knee-jerk response than a conscious decision which then results in behavior (discrimination)
Implicit Association Test
Discrimination – A Class Divided

22. Group Dynamics
How does the presence of others influence individual behavior?
Social loafing
Social facilitation
Group polarization (incestuous amplification and risky shift) not groupthink
Deindividuation
Groupthink (rationalized conformity) and mindguard

23. Groupthink and Mindguard
Groupthink When the norms for conforming in a homogeneous group become so strong, and members are highly concerned about maintaining unanimity, that they fail to critically evaluate their options and consequently make a poor decision
Examples...Iraq invasion, Bay of Pigs, Challenger disaster…
Role of mindguard

24. Bystander Effect
Bystander intervention v. bystander apathy/effect (Kitty Genovese)
First demonstrated by Darley and Latane (1968) Participants are assigned to alone or group condition (comprised of confederates). A crisis situation is staged; a person getting injured, a person having a seizure...How do participants react?
Consistent Results: The presence of others inhibits helping…
Diffusion of responsibility/social loafing
Pluralistic ignorance
Bystander intervention

25. The Psychology of Helping
Altruistic and Prosocial behavior
Social norms theory States that much of people’s behavior is influenced by their perception of how other members of their social group behave
Social exchange theory An economic-social theory that assumes human relationships are based on choice and cost-benefit analyses
Social benefits
If one partner's costs begin to outweigh his or her benefits, that person may leave the relationship, especially if there are good alternatives available

26. Theory of Social Comparison
Theory of Social Comparison (Festinger) Humans gain information about themselves, and source self-esteem, by comparison to others
Upward social comparison Individuals compare themselves to others who are “socially better” to view self more positively
Downward social comparison A defensive tendency to evaluate oneself in comparison with others whose troubles are more serious than one's own

27. Persuasion and the Elaboration Likelihood Model
Persuasion can be divided into two separate processes based on the "likelihood of cognitive elaborations," that is, whether people think critically about the content of a message, or respond to superficial aspects of the message and other immediate cues
Central and peripheral routes to persuasion

28. The Psychology of Aggression
Bio-psychosocial model
Biological Sources/Causes (brain, hormones, genetics, evolutionary - instinct theory)
Psychological sources
Social scripts
Observational learning and reinforcements
Frustration-aggression hypothesis

29. Psychology of Attraction
Factors affecting attraction
Proximity/propinquity – mere exposure effect
Primacy (first impressions)
Physical attractiveness (facial matching)
Similarity
Complementarity (not dissimilarity)
Reward theory of attraction/social exchange
Intimacy
Theories of interpersonal attraction – reinforcement, equity and cognitive consistency (balance)
Passionate v. companionate love (Sternberg’s triarchic includes?)