1. PSY 368 Human Memory Neuropsychology & Memory Review for Exam 2

2. Announcements Focus Questions for Weldon and Roediger (1987) Due Monday Today Exam 2 Wednesday (March 28)

3. Alzheimer ’ s Disease Alzheimer’s disease Cortical, progressive dementia Criteria deficit in two or more areas of cognition, at least one of which is memory interferes with social or occupational functioning decline from premorbid level gradually progressive course rule out other causes

4. Alzheimer ’ s Disease Alzheimer’s disease (video clip # 19, ~7mins)video clip Cortical, progressive dementia Disease is associated with the development of neuro- fibrillary tangles and plaques To stay healthy, neurons must communicate with each other, carry out metabolism, and repair themselves. AD disrupts all three of these essential jobs. Pet Scan of Normal Brain Pet Scan of Alzheimer ’ s Disease Brain

5. Alzheimer ’ s Disease Alzheimer’s disease Signs of AD are first noticed in the entorhinal cortex, then proceed to the hippocampus. Affected regions begin to shrink as nerve cells die. Changes can begin 10-20 years before symptoms appear. Memory loss is the first sign of AD. Preclinical AD

6. Alzheimer ’ s Disease Alzheimer’s disease AD spreads through the brain. The cerebral cortex begins to shrink as more and more neurons stop working and die. Mild AD signs can include memory loss, confusion, trouble handling money, poor judgment, mood changes, and increased anxiety. Moderate AD signs can include increased memory loss and confusion, problems recognizing people, difficulty with language and thoughts, restlessness, agitation, wandering, and repetitive statements. Mild to Moderate AD

7. Alzheimer ’ s Disease Alzheimer’s disease In severe AD, extreme shrinkage occurs in the brain. Patients are completely dependent on others for care. Symptoms can include weight loss, seizures, skin infections, groaning, moaning, or grunting, increased sleeping, loss of bladder and bowel control. Death usually occurs from aspiration pneumonia or other infections. Caregivers can turn to a hospice for help and palliative care. Severe ADs

8. Alzheimer’s Disease The brains of people with AD have an abundance of two abnormal structures: An actual AD plaque An actual AD tangle Beta-amyloid plaques Dense deposits of protein and cellular material that accumulate outside and around nerve cells Neurofibrillary tangles Twisted fibers that build up inside the nerve cell Alzheimer’s disease

9. Alzheimer ’ s Disease Alzheimer’s disease Relatively intact articulatory loop of WM three types of memory problems WM – verbal and spatial memory impairments Episodic memory impaired (e.g., free recall) Executive function Semantic memory is also impaired Naming and word generation impaired in AD Note: pure amnesics do not have the latter two impairments

10. Exam 2 Review Chapter 5: Memory Processing Chapter 6: Forgetting Chapter 7: Implicit Memory Chapter 8: Neuropsychology and Memory Chapter 9: Recognition

11. Exam 2 Review Chapter 5: Memory Processing Craik & Lockhart (1972), Levels of processing (slide 16) Craik & Tulving (1975) – good experimental evidence supporting LOP (deeper processing remembered better) (slide 17) Transfer Appropriate Processing Morris, Bransford, & Franks (1977) – good experimental evidence supporting TAP (match of processing at encoding and retrieval more important than LOP) (slide 18-21) Context effects (similar context at encoding & test, better memory) Encoding Specificity Principle (Thompson & Tulving, 1970) (slide 22-23)

12. Exam 2 Review Chapter 6: Forgetting Ebbinghaus and forgetting function (slide 24) Permastore (see Bahrick studies) (slides 25-27) Retrospective vs. Prospective memory Theories of forgetting Failure of Consolidation Decay Context/cue mismatch Interference (retroactive and proactive) (slides 28-29)

13. Exam 2 Review Chapter 7: Implicit Memory Implicit memory tasks (vs. explicit tasks) (slides 30-31) Process Dissociation Procedure (Jacoby, 1991) (slides 32-34) Theoretical accounts The activation view Multiple memory systems (slide 35) Transfer appropriate processing Blaxton (1989) (data vs. conceptual driven, or direct vs. indirect) (slides 36-40) Bias view

14. Exam 2 Review Chapter 8: Neuropsychology and Memory Methods of study (slide 41) Neurons and the Brain (slides 42-45) Hippocampus Memory Disorders Amnesia (slide 46) Anterograde retrograde Alzheimer’s Disease (today’s lecture, slides 3-9)

15. Exam 2 Review Chapter 9: Recognition Recall vs. Recognition Signal Detection Method (slide 47) Single vs. dual process theories (slides 48-51) Tagging Model Strength Theory Generate-Recognize Model Remember/Know Processes Model Face Recognition (slide 52)

16. Level of Processing Craik & Lockhart (1972) Considered level of processing at study to be more important for memory than intent to learn Levels of processing = how “deeply” the item is processed The depth of processing helps determine the durability in LTM. Level of ProcessingExample 1) Visual Form“DOG” includes the letters D, O, and G 2) PhonologyRhymes with FOG 3) Semantics (Meaning) A four-legged pet that often chases cats and chews on bones SHALLOW DEEP

17. Craik and Tulving (1975) Levels of Processing Task : Participants viewed words and were asked to make three different types of judgments: Visual processing (e.g. “Is LOG in upper case?” Y/N) Phonological (e.g. “Does DOG rhyme with LOG?” Y/N) Semantic (e.g. “Does DOG fit in the sentence: ‘The ___ chased the cat’?” Y/N) Finally, participants were asked to recognize the words they had seen before in a surprise test including both old and new words.

18. Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) Task : Participants made either a phonological or semantic judgment about each item on a word list. Study: eagle (yes/no fits clue) Deep - The ____ is the US national bird. Shallow - rhymes with legal The learning was incidental: participants were not told that they would have to later recall the words. This constrains (limits) the learning strategies used. Transfer-appropriate processing

19. Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) Task : The final test was either: A standard recognition test for the learned words. A rhyming recognition test for learned words e.g., Was a word presented that rhymed with “regal”?. Transfer-appropriate processing

20. Encoding:Recognition test: Rhyming test: Does ____ rhyme with legal? (eagle) 63%49% Does ____ have feathers? (eagle) 84%33% Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) Results : Standard recognition test: Deeper processing led to better performance. Rhyming recognition test: The shallower rhyme-based encoding task led to better performance because it matched the demands of the testing situation.

21. Transfer-appropriate processing Encoding:Recognition test: Rhyming test: Does ____ rhyme with legal? (eagle) 63%49% Does ____ have feathers? (eagle) 84%33% Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) Conclusion: The take-home message is that when the processing at encoding matches the processing at retrieval, performance will be better. It only makes sense to talk about a learning method’s efficiency in the context of the type of final test.

22. Thompson and Tulving (1970) Examined effectiveness of cue Had people learn lists of strong or weak associates. Strong vs. weak cues (“flower”) Strong: bloom Weak: fruit Study: no cue vs. weak cue Test: no cue, weak cue, or strong cue Encoding Specificity Principle

23. Thompson and Tulving (1970) Thompson and Tulving showed that this can be reversed if you change the study context. The best retrieval cue for a word like “flower” would be a strong associate like “bloom.” “fruit” is weakly associated to “flower,” and would be unlikely to pull it out.

24. Memory Performance Rapid forgetting for short delays - slower for longer delays Forgetting Ebbinghaus (1885)

25. What do we forget? Permastore: Describes the leveling off of the forgetting curve at long delays. Beyond this point, memories appear impervious to further forgetting. Bahrick (1984) Permastore Rapid forgetting of foreign language for 3 yrs, Then of a asymptotes (levels off) after about 2 years, Stays fairly constant even up to 50 yrs. The overall level of retention is determined by the level of initial learning.

26. Bahrick, Bahrick & Wittlinger (1975) Permastore Tested nearly 400 high-school graduates on their ability to recognize and name classmates after delays of up to 30 years. Questions Recall Can you list all your classmates? Can you name all these faces? Recognition Is this the name of a classmate? Is this the face of a classmate? Match these names and faces

27. Bahrick, Bahrick & Wittlinger (1975) Permastore Tested nearly 400 high-school graduates on their ability to recognize and name classmates after delays of up to 30 years. Results were mixed : Relatively unimpaired: Ability to recognize their classmates’ faces/names. Ability to match up names to the appropriate portraits. Conclusion : Recall, but not recognition, of well-learned personal material, closely follows the forgetting curve first demonstrated by Ebbinghaus (1913). Extensively impaired: Ability to recall a name, given a person’s portrait. Recognition Name Matching Recall Name the picture 3.3 mons. 47+ yrs.

28. Retroactive Interference (RI) How do we forget? Forgetting caused by encoding new traces into memory in between the initial encoding of the target and when it is tested. Introducing a related second list of items impairs recall of the first list compared to a control condition.

29. Proactive Interference (PI) How do we forget? The tendency for older memories to interfere with the retrieval of more recent experiences and knowledge. The number of previous learning experiences (e.g. lists) largely determines the rate of forgetting at long delays.

30. Memory Tasks indirectdirect incidental implicit memory expts. Levels of Processing expts. intentional ?explicit memory expts. Test Instructions Study Instructions Implicit Memory : Often defined as "memory without awareness” Also “Non-declarative” & “procedural” (Squire, Knowlton, & Mesen, 1993)

31. Perceptual Tasks Word identification Word stem completion Word fragment completion Degraded word naming Anagram solution Lexical decision Implicit Memory Tasks Non-Verbal Tasks Picture fragment naming Object decision task Possible/impossible object decision Conceptual Tasks Word association Category instance generation Answering general knowledge questions Often defined as "memory without awareness”

32. Tasks are not “ process pure ” (Jacoby, 1991) Indirect measures of memory may be “contaminated” by intentional uses of memory E.g., in stem completion task, subjects might remember items from previous list and use them to complete the stems Direct measures may be influenced by unconscious or automatic influences (Jacoby, Toth, & Yonelinas, 1993) Process-Dissociation Procedure was developed to separate automatic (unconscious) and conscious processes Mixing Measures

33. Jacoby (1991) Read a list of words – List 1 Hear a list of words – List 2 Two recognition tests: Both tests include List 1, List 2 and novel words. Inclusion = complete task with studied or any item Respond “old” if word was on either list. Exclusion = complete task with item NOT studied (exclude studied items) Respond “old” only if word was on List 2. Process Dissociation Procedure

34. Can calculate C and A for each condition in the experiment C = (Proportion of studied items in inclusion) - (Proportion of studied items in exclusion) A = (Proportion of studied items in exclusion) / (1-C) The C and A values are estimated as proportions - values between 0 and 1.0 Data Proportion of studied items in inclusion = C + (1-C)(A) Proportion of studied items in exclusion = (1-C)(A) Jacoby (1991) Process Dissociation Procedure

35. Multiple Memory Systems What is a system? Schacter and Tulving (1994) SystemOther NameSubsystemsCharacteristics ProceduralNondeclarativeMotor skillsNon-conscious operation (indirect) Cognitive skills Simple conditioning Simple associative learning Perceptual representation NondeclarativeVisual word form Auditroy word form Structural description Primary memory Working memoryVisualConscious operation (direct) Auditory SemanticGenericSpatial FactualRelational Knowledge EpisodicPersonal Autobiographical Event memory If you “know how to do something” Allows you to automatically recognize things See earlier in the semester Factual information (chpt 10) Memory of events

36. Goal to demonstrate data-driven processing can affect direct tests data-driven processing do not necessarily affect indirect tests Blaxton (1989) Transfer Appropriate Process Data-drivenConceptually-driven DirectGraphic-cued Recall Free Recall IndirectFragment Completion General Knowledge

37. Target word: bashful graphic-cued recall: looks like “ bushful ” free recall frag completion: b_sh_u_ General knowledge: “ Name one of the 7 dwarfs ” Blaxton (1989) Data-drivenConceptually-driven DirectGraphic-cued Recall Free Recall IndirectFragment Completion General Knowledge Transfer Appropriate Process S’s saw or heard lists of words (key IV here)

38. Predictions Systems view : modality match should affect only indirect tests (if indirect tap separate system, then modality should affect them in the same way) for both implicit tests: visual > auditory for both explicit test: visual = auditory Blaxton (1989) Transfer Appropriate Process Data-drivenConceptually-driven DirectGraphic-cued Recall Free Recall IndirectFragment Completion General Knowledge Same pattern of results regardless of modality Visual better than auditory for both

39. Predictions TAP View : modality match should affect data-driven tasks only. (priming depends on match between study/test processing match & not on indirect vs direct): for both data-driven tests: visual > auditory for both conceptually-driven tests: visual = auditory Blaxton (1989) Transfer Appropriate Process Data-drivenConceptually-driven DirectGraphic-cued Recall Free Recall IndirectFragment Completion General Knowledge Visual should be better than auditory Visual and auditory should be about the same

40. Results Priming Effect (V > A) for data- driven tasks only: indirect : frag completion direct : graphemic-cued recall Not all indirect tests display priming effect. Gen Know (indirect, conceptual): V = A Blaxton (1989) Transfer Appropriate Process Conclusions Support view that processing rather than system is what is important

41. Neuroscientists typically study memory in animals Can record electrical or chemical signals directly from individual neurons, or carefully remove small portions of the brain Psychologists typically study memory in humans More limited techniques “Experiments of nature” Case studies Lesions Direct electrical stimulation Neuroimaging techniques Methods of Study

42. The Neuron Dendrites Cell body Axon Myelin sheath Terminal buttons Synapse Billions of synapses nice reference web page

43. Neurons and Memory Hebbian Learning: Cells that fire together wire together Connections between neurons are weighted Weights can be changed based on feedback from later cells Basic assumption of most computational neural network models (connectionism)

44. Limbic system: controls emotions and instinctive behavior (includes the hippocampus and parts of the cortex) Thalamus : receives sensory and limbic information and sends to cerebral cortex Hypothalamus : monitors certain activities and controls body’s internal clock Hippocampus: where short-term memories are converted to long-term memories Other Crucial Parts Structure of the brain

45. Hippocampus Important for formation of new episodic memories Important for encoding perceptual aspects of memories Novel events, places, and stimuli Important for declarative memory Especially as part of medial temporal lobe Supported by case of HM Video (location, 1 min ) Video Video (damage, 7 mins ) Video

46. Amnesia Loss of memory ability - usually due to lesion or surgical removal of various parts of the brain Relatively spared performance in other domains A pure amnesia is relatively rare Two broad categories: Retrograde : loss of memories for events prior to damage Anterograde : loss of ability to store new memories of events after damage

47. Signal Detection Theory Recognition accuracy depends on : Whether a signal (noise/target memory) was actually presented The participant’s response Thus, there are four possible outcomes: Hits Correctly reporting the presence of the signal Correct Rejections Correctly reporting the absence of the signal False Alarms Incorrectly reporting presence of the signal when it did not occur Misses Failing to report the presence of the signal when it occurred CORRECT INCORRECT

48. Two classes of theories Single process theories - retrieval is one process regardless of task Dual process theories - two processes needed for retrieval - can be task dependent How does Recognition work?

49. Generate-recognize model (G-R) Recall is made up of two processes First, generate a set of plausible candidates for recall (G eneration stage ) Second, confirm whether each word is worthy of being recalled (R ecognition stage – not the same as the recognition test) Recognition is made up of only one process Because the experimenter provides a candidate, recognition does not need the generation stage Dual-process theories

50. (Tulving, 1985; Gardiner, 1988)  Relatively recent change in recognition methodology  Does someone  Specifically remember  Conscious recollection of the information’s occurrence at study  Just somehow know  Knowing that it was on the list, but not having the conscious recollection, just a “feeling of knowing”  Remember versus Know Process Model

51. Remember/Know processes Make R/K judgment for “ Old ” items Remember = consciously recollect details of the item’s presentation Know = sure an item was presented, but can’t recall any of the details of presentation Dual-process theories R/K differ by: Picture superiority effect R: P > W K: W > P Generation effect R: G > R K: R = G Word frequency effect R: L > H K: H = L

52. Evidence for special ability: (1)Prosopagnosia (2)Newborn preferences (3)Face inversion effect (4)Pop-out effect for faces Face Recognition