1. "A stench from its inky surface putrescent with the oxidizing processes to which the shadows of the overreaching trees add stygian blackness and the suggestion of some mythological river of death. With this burden of filth the purifying agencies of the stream are prostrated; it lodges against obstruction in the stream and rots, becoming hatcheries for mosquitoes and malaria. A thing of beauty is thus transformed into one of hideous danger." Texas Department of Health 1925 "There are three kinds of lies. Lies, damned lies, and statistics!" Mark Twain Under carefully controlled laboratory conditions an organism does what it damn well pleases. Harvard Law "What's the use of their having names", the gnat said, "if they won't answer to them?" "No use to them," said Alice; "but it's useful the people who name them, I suppose.“ Through the Looking Glass – Lewis Carroll

4. Poikilotherm – having a body temperature that varies with the environment, cold blooded as are amphibians, reptiles, fishes, insects Homiotherm – having a constant body temperature, warm-blooded as are mammals and birds Q 10 law or VanHoft’s Law which states that a doubling of temperature between 10 and 20 ºC increases the metabolic rate by 2 fold. Inverse metabolic rate law – the smaller the organism the greater the metabolic rate on a per gram basis. Therefore, it takes more energy to support 10, 1 gram organisms than it does 1, 10 gram organism. If a rhinoceros had the metabolic rate of a mouse it would have to endure boiling temperature at its surface in order to dissipate heat generated as a result of metabolic processes. Physoclist, physostome, no gas bladder Diurnal Diel Nocturnal

7. Very Early Stages of Development Embryo (0 hours old)

8. Embryo +3 Hours

9. Embryo +5 Hours Old

10. Embryo +8 Hours

11. Embryo +11.5 Hours

12. Embryo +13.5 Hours

13. Embryo +14 Hours

14. Embryo +14.5 Hours

15. Embryo +16.5 Hours

16. Embryo +17.5 Hours

17. Young C. dubia In Last Embryonic Membranes

18. First Antennae of Female Ceriodaphnia dubia

19. First Antennae of Male Ceriodaphnia dubia

21. Female With Fertilized Egg In Brood Pouch

23. Ephippium With Resting Egg

24. Ephippia

25. Sampling Devices Ekman Dredge Ponar Dredge Surber Sampler Kick Net ½ meter net – macrozooplankton Microzooplankton closing net Artificial Substrates Diatometer

26. Distributions

27. Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation and Confidence Limits Data Set 1Data Set 2 10 5 10 80 10 0 10 1 10 0 10 7 10 3 10 4 Total 100 100 n 10 10 Ave 10 10 Variance 0 611 St. Dev 0 24.7 C.I. 10+/-0 10+/-17.7 Variance =  (x i 2 ) -  (x i ) 2 /n Standard Deviation (St. Dev) = square root of the variance Confidence Interval (CI) = Mean  t value (St. Dev.) The t value is chosen based on sample size and  or probability level t value for 95% Confidence Interval and n=10 is 2.262 n-1 nn

28. 1-  /2 n-1 d.f. If  = 0.05

29. Data Set 3 10 12 14 17 28 2 6 21 10 15 Calculate the mean, variance standard deviation and 95% Confidence limits for Data Set 3 Mean = 13.5 Variance (s 2 ) = 55.17 Standard deviation = 7.43 Mean  5.3 (13.5  5.3) If you have an n of more than one you can calculate a mean and confidence intervals about the mean

30. 0 1000 Ho: There is no difference in the mean number of benthic organisms above and below the outall. Ha: There is a difference in the mean number of benthic organisms above and below the outfall. Failing to reject the null hypothesis does not mean that there is not a difference!!!!

32. In fact, the condition factor was significantly correlated with DNA damage (R= -0.413, P=0.045) and MT levels (R= -0.622, P=0.03). Significance in these cases means that the slope is statistically significantly different from 0. At a probability level of 0.05, any value of P less than this would be statistically significantly different. -0.413 = 17% -0.622 = 39%

34. dichotomous key

37. In 1912 The English Sparrow As a Pest? Farmers Bulletin #493, by USDA noted they eat more than ½ their own weight in grain or other food a day. It contained recipe for house sparrows. Passer domesticus The English sparrow entered the US as a gesture of friendship. As the steamship Europa steamed up the Hudson River the birds were a gesture of friendship to the U.S. In reality the English sparrow was introduced numerous times before it finally took hold. Native to the Old World, the bird was first introduced into the United States about 1850 to combat cankerworms, and it rapidly became widespread. Aggressive as well as prolific, it has largely replaced many native birds in urban areas.

38. By 1887, some states had already initiated efforts to eradicate HOSPs. States such as Illinois (1891-1895) and Michigan (1887-1895) established bounty programs. According to Keith Kridler, since the bounty on "English" Sparrows was only a few cents per bird in many states, young children killed these birds to earn money for "hard candy." The children quickly learned to wait for the eggs to hatch and thus quadruple their bounty. County clerks often felt sorry for these children, and paid out the bounty on any species of sparrow. A 3/16/1892 article in an Indiana PA paper stated "The different county treasurers of Illinois have paid out in round figures $8,000 as bounty money under a law allowing 2 cents for the head of each sparrow killed during December, January and February in that State. This shows that about 450,000 sparrows were killed, but the frisky bird seems more numerous than ever." On 09/06/1888, The Cartersville Courant-American newspaper noted "The English Sparrow, with its grown and growing progeny, is a conspicuous nuisance. Can they be no way devised to abate him, if not totally, at least partially?" An 1883 article in The Messenger (Indiana, PA, 06/27/83) said "The little sparrow has been declared an outlaw by legislative enactment and they can be killed at any time. They were imported into this country from Europe some years ago as a destroyer of insects, but it has been found they are not insectivorous. Besides they drive away all our native song birds and give no equivalent. Let them all be killed." In 1903, W.L. Dawson wrote "Without question the most deplorable event in the history of American ornithology was the introduction of the English Sparrow." (The Birds of Ohio, 1903)

39. Professor Ettiene Leopold Trouvelot Professor Trouvelot wanted a hardy caterpillar which would feed on oak leaves and spin a cocoon of silk. He thought such a useful creature might be produced by crossing the American Silk Moth, Bombyx mori, which feeds on mulberry and produces a large cocoon, with the Gypsy Moth, Lymantria dispar, which feeds on oak leaves. He was apparently culturing the gypsy moths on trees in his backyard when some of them escaped. Trouvelot understood the potential magnitude of this accident and notified local entomologists, but no action was taken. After the “accident”, outbreaks began to occur in Trouvelot’s neighborhood and in 1890 the State and Federal Government began their attempts to eradicate the gypsy moth. Trouvelot apparently lost interest in entomology and became interested in astronomy. About 10 years after the accident He became famous for his illustrations of astronomical details of Venus and was eventually given a position at Harvard University in Astronomy. A crater on the moon was named in honor of Trouvelot and he won the French Academy’s Valz prize for his astronomical research. The gypsy moth is now one of North America’s most devastating pests. In one of their record breaking years they defoliated almost 13 million acres; in 1993, they devoured a mere 1.8 million acres. This species originally evolved in Europe and Asia where it has existed for thousands of years. Each year about 1 million acres of forest are sprayed aerially with pesticides in order to suppress outbreaks of gypsy moth populations.

40. Though some areas are treated by private companies under contract with private land owners, most areas are sprayed under joint programs of the state and USDA Forest Service. Millions of dollars of tax money have been spent trying to eradicate and/or control the gypsy moth. More recently, the Asian gypsy moth—traveled as stowaways on boats from Russia to the West Coast in 1991 and from Germany to North Carolina in 1993. The Asian moths eat more voraciously than the Europeans and, because the females can fly, may spread four to five times faster. This gypsy moth is known to feed on the foliage of hundreds of species of plants in North America but its common hosts are oak and aspen. Gypsy moth hosts are located throughout most of the conterminous US but the highest concentrations are in southern Appalachian Mountains, the Ozark Mountains, and the Northern Lake States. Every year isolated populations of are discovered beyond the contiguous range of the gypsy moth. Most die out but it is inevitable that the gypsy moth will continue to expand in the future. New studies suggest that Dimilin, one of the most effective pesticides against the gypsy moth, does more damage to the environment than previously thought. Dimilin, also destroys insects vital to the health of the forest ecosystem. Dimilin is the cheapest and most efficacious way to kill gypsy moths but the chemical has also become the “bad boy” of pesticides because of its non-target effects. Studies indicate that of all the arthropods in the tree canopy, the macro- Lepidoptera larvae which includes the butterflies and big moths suffer the greatest loss. These arthropods, and others don’t seem to recover for longer than a year after spraying, play a critical role in the forest ecosystem as food for bats and birds. Dimilin is also incredibly toxic to aquatic invertebrates compared with alternatives.

41. Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) the risk of chemicals to human health and the environment are supposed to be evaluated before a chemical is allowed into commerce. Many of the 100,000 chemicals in commerce have never been evaluated because they were already in commerce when the TSCA was passed in 1976. Approximately 2,000 new chemicals come into commerce in the US each year. The ecological risk assessment is done by calculating the ratio between the Predicted Environmental Concentration (PEC) and the Predicted No Effects Concentration (PNEC). For fish medicines*- based on acute data the ratio of these two parameters is 3 or the DT50 in water is greater than 4 days further studies including chronic toxicity are carried out. *the various factors DT, K ow, organisms tested vary depending on the environmental compartment into which the chemical might go (air, water, soil, etc.)

42. The use of dimilin (diflubenzuron) is expected to cause adverse acute and chronic effects to both freshwater and estuarine/marine invertebrates, including endangered species. To lessen the environmental risks posed by diflubenzuron, EPA is requiring the following risk mitigation measures: Row crops and orchard uses must include a 150 foot buffer zone for aerial applications and a 25 foot vegetative buffer strip to decrease runoff in all cases (buffer strip will also serve as a buffer zone for spray drift from ground applications); Aerial applications must include the most current spray drift language; and All products must CONTAIN a hazards statement warning about possible adverse effects to aquatic organisms.

43. White Pine Blister Rust – Cronartium ribicola Introduced into the US from timber shipments from Europe. It is a heteroecious (requires two hosts) parasite. The two hosts are the white pine tree which is commercially valuable and wild currant and gooseberries of the Genus Ribes. One spore is found associated with the white pine tree and this spore must be transmitted to the intermediate host, the wild currant or gooseberry before the spores infectious to the white pine tree, are formed. The spores that infect the white pine trees may travel long distances; however, the spores that carry the infection from the wild currants and gooseberries to the white pine trees seldom travel more than 1000 feet. The control strategy for this disease was to eradicate the wild currant and gooseberry bushes within 1000 feet of white pine trees. We used 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid and 2,4-Dichlorphenoxy acetic acid. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachloro-dibenzo- p-dioxin Unlike PCBs dioxins have no uses they are contaminants of manufacturing Agent Orange has been linked to cancers and other diseases in several epidemiological studies. The Agent Orange cancers and diseases include prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, (lung, trachea/bronchus, larynx), soft- tissue sarcoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Hodgkin disease, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and multiple myeloma.

50. Fire Ants Seven species of fire ants (Solenopsis) are distributed throughout the warm temperate regions of the Americas. Shortly after World War I a dark form S. saevissima from Argentina became established in Mobile, Alabama and slowly spread to surrounding regions. In the 1930’s a smaller reddish form of Solenopsis appeared in the same region, apparently representing a second major introduction. The latter form aggressively made its way beyond the State’s borders swamping out by interbreeding and internecine warfare (violent death marked by slaughter) the established black phase. At present the North American populations are chiefly the red phase, tending to replace native forms as well as the dark phase. In 1957 the U.S. Department of Agriculture requested congressional approval for control of the fire ant. The request was granted and a 2.4 million dollar allocation was approved with the stipulation that matching funds be made available. Most states and many individuals did respond with matching funds, but very often control programs went ahead without them. A massive operation was set up with great speed. The first spraying using 2 pounds of dieldrin (chlorinated hydrocarbon, on the POPs list) or heptachlor (chlorinated hydrocarbon on the POPs list) per acre began in November 1957. Over two and one-half million acres were aerially treated. Not until the operation was well underway were wildlife and health authorities notified. Immediate opposition to the program resulted-opposition was to grow to a national controversy. Fish, wildlife, livestock, and poultry suffered losses, the destruction of wildlife bordered on the catastrophic. The insect was not considered more than a nuisance in any of the southern states; it did not destroy crops, wildlife, and livestock.

51. However, chemicals did eliminate vertebrates from some areas, it did cause residue problems, it did contribute to insect outbreaks themselves requiring control. It did not eradicate the fire ant; the ants re-infested most of the treated areas. The Plant Pest Control Division of the Dept. of Agriculture had clearly made a massive mistake; the operation was a failure from its inception. Between 1962-1978 Mirex was used as a bait to kill fire ant colonies. Mirex was banned for use (it is on the POPs list) by EPA because it was shown to pose serious human health hazards. Mirex is converted to Kepone by photolysis. The imported fire ant now infests more than 230 million acres in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North and South Carolina, and Texas. Somewhere in the neighborhood of 175 to 200 million federal dollars have been spent trying to first to eradicate and now control this pest. Economic-When soybean combines cut through fire ant mounds their blades and rollers must be replaced two or three times a season compared to once every four years under good conditions. Farmers have been known to leave valuable crops in the field to protect their machinery. Citrus growers in Florida are spending about $110/acre/year to replant some varieties of young trees that die because they are girdled by fire ants. Studies by two U of Florida researchers found that infestations of fire ants actually increased on insecticide treated plots that originally had low infestation levels. The amount of increase on treated plots was somewhere between 200 and 3000 percent. Because the imported fire ants colonize better than other ants you inadvertently select for imported ants when you eradicate all other ants.

52. Home control can be achieved by using boiling water on the mounds. Tends to kill the grass around the mounds. Farmland and Rangeland controls using synthetic growth hormones like Pro-Drone that prevents the larvae from developing into normal workers. Large areas of Texas have been treated. Some researchers believe that the Pro-Drone will act like the broad spectrum pesticides and actually increase the infestation. Researchers are looking for predators, fungi, or bacteria in native Brazil for control mechanisms. In Brazil the fire ant is not a significant problem. Clearly something in Brazil is controlling the density of fire ants. Our native fire ant species is a minor nuisance at home, but a major pest in India where it was inadvertently introduced. Former Texas Agriculture Commissioner Regan Brown told a national fire ant symposium that, “This is not an infestation it is an invasion.” This is the same guy who, on national TV, stuck his fist into a fire ant mound and then spent the rest of the interview trying to get the dam things off of him.

54. The researchers recommend that action should be taken now to cryogenically preserve gametes or fertilized eggs of native riverine mussels or to move adults into hatcheries where they can be maintained and perhaps propagated. Native mussels might be stocked in the future if the zebra mussel populations ever crash. Sometimes we introduce new species in an attempt to solve problems created by previous introductions but end up making the situation worse. In Hawaii and several Caribbean Islands for instance, mongooses were imported to help control rats that had escaped from ships and were destroying indigenous birds. Since the mongooses were diurnal, however, while the rats were nocturnal, they tended to ignore one another. Instead the mongooses also killed native birds and further threatened endangered species. Our lessons from this and similar introductions have a new technological twist. Some of the ethical questions currently surrounding the release of genetically engineered organisms are based on concerns that they are novel organisms, and we might not be able to predict how they will interact with other species in natural ecosystems--let alone how they might respond to natural selective forces. We can't predict either their behavior or their evolution, it is argued.

55. Polyploid – an individual or species whose chromosome number is a multiple other than two of the haploid number of chromosomes. Polyploidy – a condition in which an individual posses one or more sets of homologous chrmosomes in excess of the normal diploid sets as, triploidy, tetraploidy, hexaploidy, octaploidy, and 16, 32, 64 etc. ploidy. Colchicine Heterosis – hybrid vigor, increased size, faster growth rates, resistance to disease, etc. Homologous chromosomes – a pair of chromosomes which have identical genes or their alleles

56. DATA: 26,000 acre lake (surface acres) "Weed" in the lake is Hydrilla verticillata, an import native to the Old World tropics (Africa). Weed is spreading at a rate of 15% per year Home owners around the lake have collected money and tried: mowing machines

57. A triploid grass carp permit is in effect on this lake. If a grass carp is caught, it must be immediately returned to the water unharmed.

58. There have been repeated instances over time where organisms, organisms, for a variety of reasons, have been imported into the U.S. In some cases the organisms were brought in on a whim (starlings), in the name of science (gypsy moth), to attack a specific problem (English sparrow) or as an accident. The current epidemic of the spread of bird flu is an example of how quickly things can spread do to both natural conditions as well as our ability to travel almost anywhere in the world. The zebra mussel entered the US in the ballast of a ship as have many other hitchhikers, the reverse movement from the US to other countries is also possible. One underlying problem associated with almost all of these introductions is that at “home” they are generally well behaved (their populations are controlled by many forces they have evolved with) when introduced into a foreign area without the control mechanisms the populations almost always explode.