1. Nanoparticles

2. Nanoparticles
A particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit with respect to its transport and properties.

3. Nanoparticles According to diameter
Ultrafine particles (nanoparticles), nm
Fine particles , 100 nm- 2.5 µm
Coarse particles, µm

4. Nanoparticles
Suspensions of nanoparticles are possible since the interaction of the particle surface with the solvent is strong enough to overcome density differences, which otherwise usually result in a material either sinking or floating in a liquid.

5. Nanoparticles According to morphology
Scientists have taken to naming their particles after the real-world shapes that they might represent.

6. Nanoparticles
Nanospheres

7. Nanoparticles
Nanorods

8. Nanoparticles
Nanoboxes

9. Nanoparticles
Nanoneedles

10. Nanoparticles
And more have appeared in the literature

11. Nanoparticles These morphologies sometimes arise Spontaneously
Templating

12. Carbon
It All Starts with Carbon

13. Carbon
If the ability of each atom to attract all those negatively charged electrons (called electronegativity) are reasonably close (that is, if the difference in electronegativity is no more than 2), then they can form covalent bonds.
Because the electronegativity of carbon atoms is 2.5 (roughly in the midrange), they can form strong, stable, covalent bonds with many other types of atoms with higher or lower values.

14. Graphite
What you fine at the tip of your pencil.

15. Graphite
Graphite, is essentially sheets of carbon atoms bonded together into one huge molecule.

16. Graphite
Because the only bonding between sheets is the van der Waals’ force, the sheets slide easily over each
other. Drag the graphite across paper, and it leaves a trail of itself on the page.

17. Graphite
Hydrogen atoms hanging on only at the edges.

18. Graphite

19. Fullerene

20. Fullerene
A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid or tube.
Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

21. Fullerene Spherical fullerenes are: Buckyball
Smallest member is C20 (unsaturated version of dodecahedrane C20H20 ) and the most common is Buckminsterfullerene (C60). C70, C80

22. Buckminsterfullerene
The first fullerene molecule to be discovered buckminsterfullerene (C60).
The name was homage to Buckminster Fuller

23. Buckminsterfullerene
The suffix "-ene" indicates that each C atom is covalently bonded to three others (instead of the maximum of four), a situation that classically would correspond to the existence of bonds involving two pairs of electrons ("double bonds").

24. Buckyball clusters
While many of the atoms in buckyballs are connected together in hexagons (just as in graphite sheets), some of the atoms are connected together in pentagons.

25. Buckminsterfullerene
The pentagons allow the sheet of carbon atoms to curve into the shape of a sphere. Every buckyball surface contains 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons.

26. Buckminsterfullerene
No two pentagons share an edge (which can be destabilizing, as in pentalene C8H6 ).

27. Creating buckyballs
Vaporizing carbon with a laser and allowing the carbon atoms to condense. Produce a very small number of buckyballs.

28. Creating buckyballs
Vaporized carbon by placing two carbon electrodes close together and generating an electric arc between them in a reaction chamber filled with a low pressure of helium or neon .
generated much larger quantities of buckyballs

29. Creating buckyballs Combustion synthesis
Mixes a hydrocarbon with oxygen and burns the hydrocarbon at a low pressure.

30. Using buckyballs in the real world
As antioxidants
C Sixty, Inc.

31. As antioxidants A free radical is a molecule or atom that has an unp
aired electron which makes it very reactive.
An antioxidant is a molecule that can supply an electron and neutralize a free radical.
When a buckyball meets a free radical, the unpaired electron in the free radical pairs up with one of the buckyball’s delocalized electrons, forming a covalent bond between the free radical and a carbon atom in the buckyball.

32. As antioxidants
Buckyballs are not naturally soluble in water, and therefore not soluble in the bloodstream.
C Sixty has added a water-soluble molecule to buckyballs. Functionalization
Buckyballbased antioxidants are several times more effective than antioxidants available today.
Each buckyball-based antioxidant can counteract several free radicals because each buckyball has many carbon atoms for the free radicals to bond to.

33. As antioxidants
Antioxidant molecules currently in use can only counteract one free-radical molecule apiece

34. Drug delivery

35. Drug delivery

36. Additional buckyball-based antioxidant type drugs
Anti-aging or anti-wrinkle creams
Buckyball-based drug to fight arteriosclerosis.
C Sixty is working on both burn creams and an HIV drug.
Sony is developing more efficient fuel cell membranes.
Siemens has developed a buckyball-based light detector.

37. Boron buckyball (B80)
A type of buckyball which uses boron atoms, instead of the usual carbon, was predicted and described in by Rice University scientists.
Build a "buckyball" using silicon atoms , it would collapse .
Boron is nearby (one atomic unit from carbon)

38. Boron buckyball (B80)
Initial work with 60 boron atoms failed to create a hollow ball that would hold its form.
So another boron atom was placed into the centre of each hexagon for added stability.

39. Boron buckyball (B80)
With each atom forming 5 or 6 bonds, is predicted to be more stable than the C60 buckyball.

40. Boron buckyball (B80)
B80 is actually more like the original geodesic dome

41. Nanoonions
Spherical particles based on multiple carbon layers surrounding a buckyball core; proposed for lubricants.

42. Buckybowl
C20H10. The molecule consists of a cyclopentane ring fused with 5 benzene rings, so another name for it is Circulene.

43. Nanotubes

44. Nanotubes
In 1991 Sumio Iijima placed a sample of carbon soot containing buckyballs in an electron microscope to produce some photographs of buckyballs — which he in fact did — but some odd, needleshaped structures caught his attention.

45. Nanotubes
Cylinders of carbon atoms that were formed at the same time that the buckyballs were formed.
These cylinders are each a lattice of carbon atoms — with each atom covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms.

46. Nanotubes
like a sheet of graphite rolled into a cylinder

47. Nanotubes
Some of these cylinders are closed at the ends and some are open.

48. Nanotubes
lattice can be orientated differently

49. Nanotubes
Armchair nanotubes, there is a line of hexagons parallel to the axis of the nanotube.

50. Nanotubes
Zigzag nanotubes, there’s a line of carbon bonds down the center.

51. Nanotubes
Chiral nanotubes, exhibit a twist or spiral (called chirality) around the nanotube.

52. Nanotubes
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT) or multi- walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT).

53. Producing nanotubes
By adding just a few percentage of nickel nanoparticles to the vaporized carbon (using either the arc-discharge or laser-vaporization) as many nanotubes as buckyballs or even more can be made.
Carbon atoms start sweating onto the surface of the particle and bond together, growing a nanotube.
When you anchor one end of the growing nanotube to the metal nanoparticle, it can’t close into the sphere shape of a buckyball.

54. Producing nanotubes
There are three methods that various companies have developed to produce carbon nanotubes in bulk quantities and at a lower cost.

55. Producing nanotubes high-pressure carbon monoxide deposition, or HiPCO
Involves a heated chamber through which carbon monoxide gas and small clusters of iron atoms flow. When carbon monoxide molecules land on the iron clusters, the iron acts as a catalyst and helps a carbon monoxide molecule break up into a carbon atom and an oxygen atom. The carbon atom bonds with other carbon atoms to start the nanotube lattice; the oxygen atom joins with another carbon monoxide molecule to form carbon dioxide gas, which then floats off into the air.

56. Producing nanotubes Chemical-vapor deposition, or CVD
A hydrocarbon — say, methane gas flows into a heated chamber containing a substrate coated with a catalyst, such as iron particles. The temperature in the chamber is high enough to break the bonds between the carbon atoms and the hydrogen atoms in the methane molecules resulting in carbon atoms with no hydrogen atoms attached. Those carbon atoms attach to the catalyst particles, where they bond to other carbon atoms forming a nanotube.

57. Producing nanotubes
A new method uses a plasma process to produce nanotubes. Methane gas, used as the source of carbon, is passed through a plasma torch. Nobody’s revealed the details of this process yet, such as what, if any, catalyst is used?!

58. The properties of nanotubes
They’re really, really strong.
The tensile strength of carbon nanotubes is approximately 100 times greater than that of steel of the same diameter.
Young’s modulus for carbon nanotubes, a measurement of how much force it takes to bend a material, is about 5 times higher than for steel.

59. The properties of nanotubes
There are two things that account for this strength:
carbon-to-carbon covalent bonds
nanotube is one large molecule, same as diamond.

60. The properties of nanotubes
Nanotubes are strong but are also elastic.
This means it takes a lot of force to bend a nanotube, but the little guy will spring right back to its original shape when you release it.

61. The properties of nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes are also lightweight, with a density about one quarter that of steel.

62. The properties of nanotubes
High thermal conductivity, more than 10 times that of silver.
Metals depend upon the movement of electrons to conduct heat.
Carbon nanotubes conduct heat by the vibration of the covalent bonds holding the carbon atoms together.
A diamond, which is also a lattice of carbon atoms covalently bonded, uses the same method to conduct heat, so it’s also an excellent thermal conductor.

63. The properties of nanotubes
A little bit sticky,
The electron clouds on the surface of each nanotube provide a mild attractive force between the nanotubes. This attraction is called van der Waals’ force.

64. The properties of nanotubes
Conducts electricity
Nano-sensors

65. Nano-sensors
Functionalization

66. Nano-sensors
Functionalization

67. Nanobuds

68. Megatubes
Megatubes are larger in diameter than nanotubes and prepared with walls of different thickness; potentially used for the transport of a variety of molecules of different sizes.