1. Homeostasis and Body Systems
Review of Systems
Homeostasis, Feedback Systems
Endocrinology/Cell communication
Nervous System
Immune System

2. R E S P I R A T O R Y

3. Respiratory Systems of Vertebrates
*Lung surface area
and moist outer skin
p.975 Fig 45.5
Fish: Gill countercurrent exchange; swim bladder for bouyancy
Become more efficient: Increased surface area
Birds are Most efficient- 2 cycles of inhalation and exhalation to support a one-way flow of air through the lungs. Highly efficient
Text-p

4. Gas Exchange in Animals

5. CIRCULATORY…

6. Heart Structure differences in Vertebrates
“Double Pump”
More efficient O2 distribution; not all separate
Advantage: Separation of O2 rich and poor blood- more O2 available to tissues

7. Mechanical And Chemical
DIGESTIVE
Mechanical And Chemical

8. EXCRETORY
Nephron
Osmoregulation

9. Nitrogenous Wastes:
NH3 Ammonia- highly toxic- directly into water in aquatic species; converted to urea in the liver.
Uric Acid- insoluble ‘paste’
Urea- produced in the liver from toxic ammonia(NH3 + CO2)
NH3
Text p Fig 47.6

10. Do Fish Drink?
*ABSORB DRINK

11. Musculo- Skeletal

13. Anatomy and Physiology
SYSTEMS:
Endocrine, Nervous, Immune

14. S Y T E M

16. HOMEOSTASIS Requirements of Organisms:
water – most abundant chemical in body; many functions; required for metabolism & transport of substances
nutrients (food) – for energy, structural support, cellular reactions
oxygen – for cellular respiration to create energy, which drives metabolism
heat – to maintain normal body temperature (~98˚F or 37˚C) – helps to maintain normal reaction rates
pressure – normal atmospheric pressure required for proper breathing; normal hydrostatic pressure maintained in blood

17. Homeostasis Ch. 48 Endocrine Regulation
The body has the ability to regulate its internal environment (job of the Nervous and Endocrine systems) dynamic equilibrium
Homeostasis involves regulating:
Blood levels of vital substances (Oxygen, glucose)
Heart rate and blood pressure
N-waste and removal
Body temperature
Rate and depth of breathing
etc
Regulation is accomplished by Feedback Mechanisms of two types: 1. Negative Feedback “NFM”
2. Positive Feedback “PFM”
Positive and Negative Feedback 14.0

19. Negative Feedback Mechanisms
Most F.M. are negative
Maintain some physiological function or keep blood chemicals within a safe range
Decrease or shut off original stimulus/reduce intensity; return from too high/too low
Return stimulus back to a setpoint (proceed in the opposite direction)
Ex: Control of Glucose levels, Body temperature

21. Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels by Negative Feedback2 3
(beta) 1 1 2
(alpha) 3
Diabetes and Insulin 7.24
Plasmids, Recombinants 4.14

22. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)

23. Hormonal Controls of Ionic Ca++ levels in Blood
Stimulate Thyroid (calcitonin): when Ca++ too HIGH (and slows PTH)
Stimulate Parathyroid (PTH): when Ca++ too LOW.
TARGETS?
Bone
Kidney
Digestion/SI 1 2

24. Positive Feedback Mechanisms
Control episodic (infrequent) events that do not require continuous adjustments
Result in enhancing or exaggerating the original stimulus so that the activity (output) is accelerated
Accelerates in the same direction until the original stimulus is gone. (the change proceeds in the same direction)
Set off a series of events that may be self-perpetuating
Ex: Blood-clotting, enhancement of labor contractions during giving birth

25. Positive feedback loop… enhancing original stimulus
*Also released during breast feeding….contraction of smooth muscle, milk glands /uterus

26. “Classic” endocrine signaling
Hormones -transported by the blood (some dissolved in plasma, some bound to proteins) and produce a response only after they reach target cells and bind with specific receptors. Target cells- another endocrine gland or another organ. Hormones are removed from the blood by the liver (inactivates) and by the kidney (secretes).

27. Reception
Transduction
Response
animation

28. Hormones that work through secondary messengers
1. First messenger (ligand) binds a cell surface receptor (membrane protein)
2-3. Creates a series of membrane-bound reactions to activate an effector (G-protein-relay-enzyme)
4. Generates/activates the second messenger molecule- cAMP )
Text p 1035 Fig 48-5 5.
Signal Transduction Pathways 9.24

29. Lipid/Steroid Hormone vs Protein Hormones

30. Master Gland- secretes hormones that manage the other glands
Regulates Ca++ levels in blood
Increase metabolic rate; lowers Blood Ca ++ levels
Consists mostly of “T” cells; role in immune system
Stress; metabolic rate; HR/BP
Endocrine AND digestion *Glucose
Sex characteristics 1.
and Hypothalamus
( Links NS/End.sys) 3. 2.
(Whole gland)
(four dots) 4.
Thymus 5. 6.
Islets of Langerhans 7. 8.
Chapter p1037-8

31. Endocrine System
Locations

32. Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary
Most use classical endocrine signaling
Regulated by the hypothalamus
(oxytocin, ADH)

33. Thyroid Hormone
Increases the overall metabolic rate, regulates growth and development as well as the onset of sexual maturity, plays a role in the regulation of calcium.
Hormone Cascade Pathway- stimulus to response Handout

34. How the Mammalian Kidney Concentrates Urine
Reabsorption to blood
Filtration
Secretion
Secretion
Glomerular Filtration (180L/24hrs; 99% reabsorbed)
Reabsorption (~65%); secretion (local cells)
Descending loop: Permeable to H2O, less to NaCl (Concentrates urine)
Ascending loop: more permeable to NaCl (reset Concentration Gradient- dilutes urine)
Reabsorption; secretion (local cells)
Collecting duct- concentrates urine
Counterflow of fluid
Text p 1022

35. How the Mammalian Kidney Concentrates Urine
Text p 1023

36. Hormonal Regulation of the Kidney: ADH
Thirst
(dehydrated; rise in Na+ in blood)
Cells of distal tubule and collecting duct become more permeable to water, so more water is reabsorbed back in to the bloodstream.

37. Chemical Signals - Communication
Coordinated by nervous and endocrine systems
Chemical Signals:
Hormones: Between organs of the body
Ductless glands > Blood stream > receptor on target cell (shape specific) *Homeostasis
Pheromones: Between Individuals of same species
Chemical signal, small amounts, social behavior
Local Regulators: *short range; between cells. Diffuses through interstitial fluid and acts on same cell/nearby cells. Other messengers: neurotransmitters, growth factors, nitric oxide gas, histamine, prostaglandin *immune system

38. Relationships between Nervous & Endocrine systems
Structural
Many endocrine glands possess nerve tissue; nervous system helps regulate endocrine responses.
Chemical
Some hormones used as signals in both systems (Example- norepinephrine)
Functional
Each system can affect the output of the other
Endocrine system responds slower than the nervous system, has a wider range of target cells, but has a longer lasting response.

39. The Nervous System Chapter 40

41. 3 4 2 5 1 7 or 6 8 or 9

42. Neuron * - * - *

43. Reflexes: Involuntary responses to sensory information
FYI…

44. Reflex Arc
(1): Sensory (PAIN!!) to (2) Afferent neuron (3): Association neuron/spinal cord (4): Efferent neuron to (5) Motor (MOVE!!)

45. White Matter: Myelinated Grey Matter: Cell bodies/Unmyelinated

46. Synaptic Cleft - Neurotransmitters

47. In Note Packet

48. Action Potential Depolarization: Na+ gates open Na+ Rushes in…
Repolarization:
Na+ gates close
K+ gates open
K+ Rushes out
Action Potential 5:39
*Neuro-Muscular Action Potential in Packet, p2

49. *ONE Pump: does 450:300 Sodium OUT:Potassium IN every SECOND
ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Na-K Pump THREE Sodium in, TWO Potassium out…. Normal function- (INSIDE of the cell overall NEGATIVE CHARGE at ‘resting potential’….important for Action Potential)
**REVIEW…..
*ONE Pump: does 450:300 Sodium OUT:Potassium IN every SECOND

50. The Immune System First Line of Defense:
Barriers to
pathogens
Nonspecific
Second Line of Defense: The Inflammatory Response
nonspecific
Third Line of Defense:
Specificity and Diversity
TEXT- Chapter 48

51. Lymphatic System Vessels that transport fluids back to the blood
One way system; valves
Lymphoid Organs:
Nodes
Tonsils, Thymus, Spleen
Peyer’s patches- Intestines
Lymphoid Tissues: (MALT)
Mucosa/Walls of lungs & intestines
appendix
Immune System Cells:
WBC “leukocytes” (5-10,00/mm3)
Lymphocytes: NK, T, B cells
(circulate in lymph and blood)
Phagocytes: Neutrophils (50-70%)
Macrophages (APC’s)
Dendritic cells (APC’s)

52. A myeloid stem cell matures into a myeloid blast
A myeloid stem cell matures into a myeloid blast. The blast can form a red blood cell, platelets, or one of several types of white blood cells.
A lymphoid stem cell matures into a lymphoid blast. The blast can form one of several types of white blood cells, such as NK, B or T cells.
FYI….

53. FYI…

54. Recognizing Self vs Non-self cells
Body’s cells must have:
“Self-markers” a collection of molecules called MHC
(Major Histocompatibility complex- a protein complex)
Imbedded in the cell membrane
No two complexes are alike* …A biochemical ‘fingerprint’
2 classes of MHC molecules:
Class I on all nucleated cells
Class II on macrophages and B cells
MHC + Antigen =
Antigen Presenting Cell (APC)
Impaired System?

55. First, Second and Third Lines of Defense
*Skin,*Mucous Membranes/cilia
*Stomach acids
*Histamine
*WBC’s PhagocytesNK cells
*Interferons
*Fever
Nonspecific Mechanisms: Responds to all invaders; 1st (external) & 2nd (internal)
Specific: responds to specific invader; “True immune system”
Works simultaneously with 2nd line of defense
Phagocytes- APC’s, Lymphocytes- “The STARS of the IS”: B cells and T cells

56. Second line of defense: Inside
*Chart in Note Packet
PATHOGEN INVADES
SPECIFIC (ADAPTIVE)
“third line of defense”
NONSPECIFIC (INNATE)
Second line of defense: Inside
‘B’
‘T’
WBC’s:
Neutrophils (70%)
~20 pathogens/die
Monocytes- Dendritic;
Macrophages
~100 pathogens/die
NK cells
Basophils- Allergy
Eosinophils- Parasite
2.19
Chemical Mediators- ’Reinforcements’- Phagocytosis; Inflammation
Cytokines: interleukins (‘between’ WBC’s), interferons (antiviral)
Complement: 20 different; chemotaxis, cell lysis
Pyrogens: Body Temperature (fever)
NK cells 3.02

57. Inflammatory Response
Dilates vessels, Increase blood flow, more permeable- leads to swelling
*If there is a severe infection (systemic)-
Stimulates Bone marrow - release more WBC’s
Fever- Pyrogens released by WBC’s

58. The Third Line of Defense
*Antibodies immobilize pathogens until phagocytes and “complement” chemicals destroy them
*Cells already infected. T cells bind to and destroy infected cells/cancer cells

59. Antigen-Antibody Binding site

61. Third Line of Defense: Specificity and Diversity
Antigen Pathogen
Macrophage
“APC”
(MHC + antigen = APC)
T Helper:
“Th”
B cell
T Cytotoxic “Tc”
Active “effector” vs Memory 1
macrophage 2 3 4 5 6 8 7

62. “Call 911”
Cytotoxic T cell

63. Central Role of Helper T-cells
Interleukin-1 and and other cytokines activate Th cells, B cells, and Tc cells
(In Note Packet)
T cells produced in the bone marrow; mature in the thymus gland. Helper T (Th or CD4*) Cytotoxic C (Tc or CD8)

64. AIDS
HIV Lifecycle 4.52
Aids and the Plague 7.26

65. Clonal Selection of B cells
Produced and mature in the bone marrow
Once activated by the matching antigen, differentiates into plasma or memory cells
One plasma cell can produce > 1 mill. antibody/hr
Proliferation to form a clone
Secreted into circulation

66. The Immune Response: Third Line of Defense: B Cells (Humoral)
Antibody Production

67. 1st and 2nd Lines of Defense
Phagocytes, NK cells w/ perforin, Complement
APOPTOSIS (Cell Death) vs LYSIS (Cell Bursting)

68. Induced/Adaptive Immunity
Takes 7-14 days; long lasting protection
Immediate, short term protection
You get sick > make AB’s, memory cells Ex- Chicken pox, measles
Flu, shingles vaccine, infant vaccines
Fetus gets AB’s from mother infant through placenta, breast milk
-Injection of Gamma globulin after exposure to dangerous disease (viral hepatitis)
-Antitoxin after being bitten by poisonous snake