1. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Transactional Distance Model : a practical scaffold for Classroom, Online and Blended Learning Paul Kawachi FRSA Open University of China kawachi @ open - ed. net

2. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Transactional Distance Model : a practical scaffold for Classroom, Online and Blended Learning Paul Kawachi FRSA Open University of China kawachi @ open - ed. net http : // www. open - ed. net / library / scaffold. ppt

3. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net an empirically validated model as a practical scaffold for supporting classrooms, blended, and online learning that derives essentially from the distinction between cooperative and collaborative ways of learning in groups overview

4. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net i definitions of the terms ii theories behind the scaffold iii the scaffold model iv empirical validation v on decreasing autonomy vi on group size vii summary overview

5. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net i definitions of the terms definitions

6. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net definitions of the terms : - transactional distance - cooperative - collaborative - structure - dialogue - autonomy definitions

7. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net i definitions of the terms ii theories behind the scaffold iii the scaffold model iv empirical validation v on decreasing autonomy vi on group size vii summary theories

8. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net ii theories behind the scaffold theories

9. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net theories behind the scaffold : - conversation theory - transactional distance theory - constructivism - constructionism - connectivism theories

10. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net iii the scaffold model scaffold

11. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the scaffold model : distinct stages can be characterised by their added Structure S+ imposed by the institution, and added Dialogue D+ the educative transactions scaffold

12. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the 4 stage theory of transactional distance : 1) Maximal Distance ( D- S- ) no teaching, and no structure 2) Less Distance ( D- S+ ) no teaching, but added purpose 3) Less Distance ( D+ S+ ) content teaching, and purpose 4) Minimal Distance ( D+ S- ) content relevant, freedom. D = educative dialogue S = imposed structure scaffold

13. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the 4 stage model of transactional distance : 1) Maximal Distance ( D- S- ) reflective, cooperative 2) Less Distance ( D- S+ ) framing in a theory, collaborative 3) Less Distance ( D+ S+ ) review other solutions, collaborative 4) Minimal Distance ( D+ S- ) adopt new way, cooperative. D = educative dialogue S = imposed structure scaffold

14. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net scaffold the transactional distance model of learning

15. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the Transactional Distance Model scaffold

16. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the Transactional Distance Model example Stage 1 get input Stage 4 try out … Stage 2 create Stage 3 choose from all world

17. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the Transactional Distance Model scaffold

18. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi 2003 this Model recognizes that learning starts from what someone already knows through cooperative sharing, and proceeds through collaborative reflection about new not-yet-learnt information

19. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net decreasing Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ cooperative sharing old collaborative creative collaborative disjunctive cooperative experiential

20. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi 2003 1 elicit needs, sharing, brainstorming 2 rationalizing, theorizing, justifying 3 consider all possible alternatives, disjunctive thinking 4 test out new way, experiential, publish

21. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net here we use the letters S and D to refer to : S Structure : the educative structure imposed by the teacher, textbook or institution D Dialogue : the educative guiding conversation ( not idle or social chat )

22. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net decreasing Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ cooperative sharing old collaborative creative collaborative disjunctive cooperative experiential

23. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 1 cooperative Stage 2 collaborative Stage 4 cooperative Stage 3 collaborative

24. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 1 is characterized by cooperative sharing of prior old knowledge and prior experience, eliciting views, brainstorming and divergent thinking to gather various different frames of context

25. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 2 is characterised by collaborative creation and discovery of new theory rationalizing and underlying prior knowledge, developing metaphors, horizontal and lateral thinking

26. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 3 is characterised by collaborative testing out of hypotheses to co-discover some new potential knowledge, problem solving, vertical and disjunctive thinking

27. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 4 is characterised by cooperative presenting new idea in real-life, experiential, personal meaning-making, social-constructivist, dissemination, reflecting, judging, publishing

28. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net decreasing Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ cooperative sharing old collaborative creative collaborative disjunctive cooperative experiential

29. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now the main points in this Transactional Distance Model : are that initially the student chats, ( not educatively, so here D- and without teaching tasks S- ) to share own background, to reduce anxiety, and to become comfortable and able then to engage S+ reasoning

30. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now the main points in this Transactional Distance Model : then the student explains to others and must engage S+ reasoning at this Stage 2, social interactions may be fun or desirable but is no longer needed

31. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now the main points in this Transactional Distance Model : then the teacher engages ( D+ ) and raises alternatives to be explored ( S+ ), and finally the student tries out a new idea in her own context ( S- ) with teaching guidance and assessment ( D+ )

32. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net this Transactional Distance Model succeeds through bringing the student from not knowing ( greatest Transactional Distance ) to knowing something ( zero Transactional Distance )

33. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Learning Transaction = requires 4 interactions 1 student’s prior knowledge and need are identified 2 the text or teacher gives an amount of information 3 the student outputs an own construction 4 the teacher or society confirms the meaning Three encounters / passes are needed to ‘learn’

34. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net decreasing Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ Cooperative sharing old Collaborative creative Collaborative disjunctive Cooperative experiential

35. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Four Categories in Transactional Distance Theory less Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ added Structure added Dialogue

36. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now we have the scaffold or framework consisting of the four distinct Stages on which to put the essential kinds of interactions that we need to bring about learning, through reducing the Transactional Distance

37. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net difficulties are reported in achieving Stage 3 Renner 1976 found only 81% of final-year law students in 2 law schools reached Stage 3 Piaget 1977 acknowledged many people never reached Formal Operations level Stage 3 even in adulthood McKinnon 1976 found only 50% of college students at 7 colleges could reach Stage 3 Gunawardena 1997 and 2001 found in graduate students and teachers that the Stage 3 “collaboration simply did not happen” Meyer 2003 found only 29% of graduate students reached Stage 3 and Anderson 2007 only 13% of two graduate courses

38. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net How do other theories such as constructivism fit with this Transactional Distance Model ? Most theories each have their own special practice Behaviorism, and objectivism each suits the cooperative Stage 1 plus Stage 4 While cognitive constructivism suits Stage 2 and social constructivism suits Stage 3 Overall, constructionism suits the whole Model involving all four stages in sequence

39. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net let’s open up these points a little... Stage 1 T input : behaviourism Stage 4 T-moderated output : behaviourism Stage 1 + Stage 4 : behaviourism Stage 2 Ss told connections : cognitivism Stage 3 Ss discuss connections : constructivism T or S knows : cooperative so we lack collaborative – critical thinking skills so adopt constructionism

40. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net in constructionism... Learning is wholly within the student’s mind through interactions ( as in Conversation Model ) diversity helps to achieve collaborative Stage 3 so adopt Transactional Distance Model

41. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 1 cooperative Stage 2 collaborative Stage 4 cooperative Stage 3 collaborative

42. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the Transactional Distance Model is perfectly suited to early school education the initial stage involves cooperative sharing... this can be from the student herself ( best ) or from other students ( suits large classes ) or any source ( teacher, textbook or internet ) younger children might prefer doing some activities to generate own ideas to share with others

43. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net 1 each student first expresses her own ideas or own findings or experience 2 the teacher then asks students to express why they feel or think like they do 3 and then raises other new alternatives using a textbook or the internet 4 for the students to take away and try out themselves

44. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net The Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi underpinned by the widely accepted - Conversation Theory : Holmberg 1983, Grogono 1993, Laurillard 2002 - Transactional Distance Theory : Peters 1973, Moore 1993 - Constructionism Theory : Papert 1991, Gergen 2001

45. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Conversation Theory : Mitchell & Grogono 1993 - postulates that learning occurs through guiding transactions between a desirable target concept map model of knowledge and a student’s externalized model of prior understanding. - Such transactions include asking the student to articulate and make explicit own elaborations

46. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Conversation Model : learning transactions include appropriation - whereby the teacher or a good student picks up points from weaker students and shows how they can fit into a larger picture, to model greater understanding for the weaker students to then see elaboration - whereby conflicts, slight differences or diverging views are verbalized, and so lead to learning justification - whereby thought processes and strategic knowledge initially implicit are made explicit through verbalization to help both the enquirer and the justifier to learn

47. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Harel, I., & Papert, S. (1991). Constructionism. Norwood, NJ : Ablex. Holmberg, B. (1983). Guided didactic conversation in distance education. Distance education : International perspectives, (pp. 114-122). London : Croom Helm. Gergen K.J., & Wortham, S. (2001). Social construction and pedagogical practice. In K.J. Gergen (Ed.), Social construction in context, (pp. 115-136). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage. Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching : A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies. London : RoutledgeFalmer. Mitchell, P.D., & Grogono, P.D. (1993). Modelling techniques for tutoring systems. Computers & Education, 20 (1), 55-61. Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed), Theoretical principles of distance education, (pp. 22-38). London : Routledge. These plus my own Kawachi 1999 – 2012 published works available from me by email

48. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net constructivist learning : the distinction between iii cooperative in a group iv collaboratively in a group is important for scaffolding the learning process scaffold

49. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net less transactional distance 1 S - D - 2 S+ D - 3 S+ D+ 4 S - D+ cooperative sharing old collaborative creative collaborative disjunctive cooperative experiential the transactional distance model of learning scaffold

50. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the transactional distance model of learning Stage 1 cooperative Stage 2 collaborative Stage 4 cooperative Stage 3 collaborative scaffold

51. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net a scaffold of the interactions : cooperative interactivity occurs in a situation of inequality or disequilibrium from a source (knower) to the passive receiver cooperative activity is limited to recall and memorisation an active receiver questions the input in collaborative mode scaffold

52. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net suggested verbal expressions for the interactions : T1 : initial input from outsiders as trigger followed by S1 and S2 self-reflections T2 : output and the possible T3 received by outsiders followed by their S3 and S4 self-reflections T4 : output from outsiders, and T5 received input followed by self-reflections again and T6 output these are illustrated in the following scaffold … scaffold

53. S1 S2 S3 S4 T1 T2 T3 T4 ( T6 ) ( T5 ) Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net scaffold

54. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net suggested verbal expressions for the interactions : T1 : "How do you think about this idea?" S1 "I think this is the meaning" and S2 "I wonder if I am connecting this well" T2 : "This is my interpretation. Is it complete?" T3 "Please add complexity to help my understanding" S3 "I confirm one point, and add some related others" S4 "Show us a bigger picture of your interpretation" T4 : "The initial idea is now input and well connected while the other points need more clarification" scaffold

55. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net a scaffold of the interactions : cooperative learning characterises the second-level Stage 1 and Stage 4 of the transactional distance model in Stage 1, cooperation involves getting input in Stage 4, cooperation involves testing out an idea scaffold

56. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net scaffold novel information prior knowledge cooperative input of new information in Stage 1

57. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net scaffold feedback information nascent knowledge cooperative input of feedback in Stage 4

58. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net collaborative learning : used in small groups for questioning ideas and the perspectives of the participants in a search and research inquiry to co-create new non-foundational learning learning

59. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net a scaffold of the interactions : collaborative interactivity occurs in a situation of perceived equality and equilibrium between two pro-active partners who do not yet know the outcome collaborative activity questions all input and is highly engaged and reflective scaffold

60. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the turn-taking collaborative process : involves three functional turn-taking steps A B A between two pro-active participants A and B which when repeated as B A B give both participants the opportunities each to give opinions and receive counter-opinions empathically, as follows ;- scaffold

61. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the functional turn-taking interactions : A) ( Hello ) Affirm + Elicitation B) Opinion + Request understanding A) Confirm + Counter-opinion B) Affirm + Elicitation A) Opinion + Request understanding B) Confirm + Counter-opinion these are illustrated in the following scaffold … scaffold

62. 1 23 4 56 Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net scaffold

63. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net suggested verbal expressions for the interactions : 1 : warm affirmation “you’re okay by me” 2 : inviting open disclosure in response “please tell me what you want to do here, so that I can see your point of view” 3 : open disclosure “here’s my own experience and what I want to do …” 4 : inviting empathic comprehension in response “I’d welcome knowing what you think I mean, to be sure my feelings are accepted” or “I’d like your sense of what I mean” 5 : empathic comprehension “what I think you mean in essence is …” 6 : “my own view differs …” or “I’d like you to hear my own view” inviting warm affirmation in response. scaffold

64. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net a scaffold of the interactions : collaborative learning characterises the second-level Stage 2 and Stage 3 of the transactional distance model in Stage 2, reorganising to fit into schema in Stage 4, research with disjunctive reasoning scaffold

65. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net scaffold collaborative argument in Stage 2 search for schema internal reorganisation

66. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net scaffold collaborative argument in Stage 3 external arguments research

67. prior knowledgenascent knowledge schema external arguments research novel information feedback information cooperative stage 1 collaborative stage 2 collaborative. stage 3 cooperative stage 4 internal reorganization the transactional distance model of learning

68. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net iv empirical validation validation

69. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net empirical validation : validation

70. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net v on decreasing autonomy autonomy

71. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net on decreasing autonomy : autonomy

72. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net vi on group size group size

73. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net on group size : group size

74. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net vii summary summary

75. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net summary : summary

76. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net You can download these slides freely from the website http : // www. open - ed. net / library / scaffold. ppt or by email to me at kawachi @ open - ed. net