Human Development Ch 3 Online link Child Development link at pbs

Human Development Ch 3 Online link Child Development link at pbs
Child Development link at pbs Module

1) All responses are from the year 2000 and later
The General Social Survey has a variable, AGEKDBRN, which asks respondents when their first child was born. Below I limited the data set as follows: 1) All responses are from the year 2000 and later 2) All responses are from women All the x-axes on the plots are age of the mother when the first child was born, while the y-axes are proportions across classes. I’ve smoothed the data some. In the first plot ~10% of women whose family wealth is less than $100,000 had their first child at 20. For women whose family wealth as more than $100,00 the proportion was ~8%. For the last plot I categorized “Dull”, “Not Dull” and “Smart” with WORDSUM, which is a 10 question vocabulary test which has a 0.70 correlation with I.Q. The dull category encompasses the bottom 35% of the distribution, the not dull encompasses the middle 53% of the distribution, and the smart the top 12% of the distribution. Module

Prenatal Development and the Newborn
Developmental Psychology Studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span Module

Developmental Psychology
Issue Details Nature/Nurture How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our behavior? Continuity/Stages Is developmental a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages? Stability/Change Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age. OBJECTIVE 1| State the three areas of change that developmental psychologists study, and identify the three major issues in developmental psychology. 7 75. Which of the following accurately describes a major change in perspective in the field of developmental psychology over the past twenty-five years? (AP94) (A) A shift from an emphasis on childhood and adolescence to an interest in development over the life span (B) A shift from a cognitive to a psychoanalytic interpretation of developmental phenomena (C) A shift in research focus from cognitive to personality development (D) A decrease in interest in the physiological factors affecting growth and development (E) A decrease in interest in the study of the cognitive components of intellect The debate over whether development occurs gradually, without discernible shifts, or through a series of distinct stages is termed (AP94) (A) Nature vs, nurture (B) Developmental vs, cognitive (C) Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal (D) Continuity vs. discontinuity (E) Maturation vs. learning 7 98. In their discussions of the process of development, the advocates of nature in the nature-nurture controversy emphasize which of the following? (AP94) (A) Socialization (B) Cognition (C) Maturation (D) Experience (E) Information processing Module

Prenatal Development and the Newborn Conception
A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell. Preview Question 1: How does life develop before birth? How, over time, did we come to be who we are? From zygote to birth, development progresses in an orderly, though fragile, sequence. Your most fortunate of moments! Out of the 200 million sperm and 5000 eggs ‘you’ won the race. Active Psych CD 1 Development from conception to birth 12. A child’s sex is genetically determined by the(AP13) (A) mother (B) father (C) paternal grandmother (D) maternal grandfather (E) maternal grandmother Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Module

Prenatal Development A zygote is a fertilized cell with cells that become increasingly diverse. At about 14 days the zygote turns into an embryo (a and b). Embryo at 40 Days Embryo at 45 Days OBJECTIVE 3| Define zygote, embryo and fetus, and explain how teratogens can affect development. 1. Nerve growth begins when a sheet of cells on the back of the embryo folds in the middle to form the future spinal cord. At one end, the tube enlarges to form the brain’s major sections. 2. First responses are reflexes, some of which occur even before the sense of touch is developed. The fetus will flex its head away from stimulation around the mouth as early as 71⁄2 weeks. By month’s end the ear begins to take shape. 3. Touch receptors around the mouth are developed by the twelfth week and elsewhere by the fifteenth. Touching the palms makes the fingers close, touching the soles of the feet makes the toes curl down, touching the eyelids makes the eye muscles clench. Nerve cells have multiplied, synapses are being formed. Zygote Module

Active psych CD 1 Development – Prenatal development Active psych 3-4 #4 Prenatal animation Link, prenatal development and testosterone from NGC 40 days days months 4 months Link Module

Prenatal Development At 9 weeks, an embryo turns into a fetus (c and d). 4. At 15 weeks the fetus can grasp, frown, squint, and grimace. It may suck its thumb and swallow. These movements correspond to the development of synapses in the brain. 5. At 20 weeks nerve-cell production slows as the existing cells grow larger and make more complex connections. The senses of taste and smell are now formed. The nerve cells serving each of the senses are developing into specialized areas of the brain. 6. The fetus can feel movement and may respond to sound as early as 24 weeks. 7. At 25 weeks some babies born prematurely can survive. Nerve supply to the ear is complete. Brain scans show response to touch at 26 weeks and to light at 27 weeks. A light shone on the mother’s abdomen will make the fetus turn its head, indicating some functioning of the optic nerve. 8. The eyes open in the womb and the fetus may see its hand and environment. Some researchers put the start of awareness at the 32nd week, at which time neural circuits are as advanced as a newborn’s. Brain scans show periods of deep sleep. 9. The fetus begins to develop daily activity cycles. At 35 weeks hearing is mature. At birth the baby can see shapes and colors within 13 inches of its face; can distinguish loudness, pitch, and tone; and may even show a preference for sweets and for the scent of its mother’s skin. Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Module

Teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause birth defects Link to AM 12:20 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking symptoms include misproportioned head What are the symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome? The following are the most common symptoms of FAS. However, each baby may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include: caved-in chest wall umbilical or diaphragmatic hernia limited movement of fingers and elbows extra fingers, abnormal palm creases excessive hair undergrown nails incomplete or lack of development of brain structures heart murmurs, heart defects, abnormalities of large vessels incomplete development of genitalia growth, motor, and mental retardation irritability in infancy and hyperactivity in childhood poor coordination AM The Mind #12 Teratogens and Their Effects on the Developing Brain and Mind Discusses the biological basis of behavior by illustrating case studies of humans affected by radiation contamination, alcohol, and drugs. Module

small head, small jaw, and small, flat cheeks malformed ears
FAS Face small head, small jaw, and small, flat cheeks malformed ears small eyes, poor development of optic nerve, crossed-eyes upturned nose, low bridge small upper mouth structure and teeth Module

FAS brain Module 13

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Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival…
Rooting - turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek Grasping - curling the fingers around an object OBJECTIVE 4| Describe some of the abilities of the newborn, and explain how researchers use habituation to assess infant sensory and cognitive abilities. Swallowing Enables newborn babies to swallow liquids without choking Tonic neck reflex It is also known as the "fencing reflex" because of the characteristic position of the infant's arms and head, which resembles that of a classically trained fencer. When the face is turned to one side, the arm and leg on the side to which the face is turned extend and the arm and leg on the opposite side bend. The presence of the ATNR, as well as other primitive reflexes, such as the tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR), beyond the first months of life may indicate that the child has developmental delays, at which point the reflex is atypical or abnormal. For example, in children with cerebral palsy, the reflexes may persist and even be more pronounced. As abnormal reflexes, both the ATNR and the TLR can cause problems for the growing child. The ATNR and TLR both hinder functional activities such as rolling, bringing the hands together, or even bringing the hands to the mouth. Over time, both the ATNR and TLR can cause serious damage to the growing child's joints and bones. The ATNR can cause the spine to curve (scoliosis). Both the ATNR and TLR can cause the head of the thighbone to partially slip out (subluxation) or completely move out of the hip socket (dislocation). When abnormal reflexes persist in a child, early intervention involving extensive physical therapy can be beneficial. 32. When a newborn infant is touched on the cheek, the infant will turn its head toward the source of stimulation. This behavior is known as (AP12) A. rooting B. suckling C. the patellar reflex D. the Moro reflex E. the Babinski reflex AM The Mind #13 (not great) Capabilities of the Newborn Covers infant development and the capacities of the newborn. Module

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Grasping reflex Module

John B. Watson, a godfather of American behaviorist psychology, tests the grasp reflex in a baby, circa Module

How babies see world Talk about habituation 42. The concept of habituation is best exemplified by which of the following situations? (AP12) A. An infant recognizes her father’s voice B. a college student is no longer kept awake by her roommates late-night typing C. A kitten avoids a couch after being reprimanded for sitting on it D. A rat learns to press a bar for food when a red light is flashed E. A motorist drives at the speed limit when there is a police officer in sight on the highway Preferences human voices and faces face like images, smell and sound of mother preferred Module

By three months can discriminate among blue, green, yellow, and red.
Habituation and dishabituation used to study how infants perceive the world. Newborns can perceive differences among different black-and-white contrasts. By three months can discriminate among blue, green, yellow, and red. Newborns can perceive differences in the angles of lines. At one month of age, infants concentrate their gaze on one part of an object. By two months, infants systematically scan the perimeter of an object. Infants may be innately tuned to perceive the human face. Babies prefer to look at symmetrical ink blots. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran The Tell Tale Brain pg 235 Reprinted from Cognition, vol. 4. M.A. Johnson, S. Dziurawiec, H. Ellis, and J. Morton, "Newborns' Preferential Tracking of Face-Like Stimuli and Its Subsequent Decline," pp. 1-19, © 1991 with the kind permission of Elsevier Science - NL, Sara Burgerharstraat 25, 1055 KV Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Module

Knowledge and experience play an important role in recognition, but are they also required for more basic aspects of perception? Which perceptual abilities are babies born with, and which do they develop by seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting things? How do their perceptions compare with those of adults? To learn about infants' perception, psychologists have studied two inborn patterns called habituation and dishabituation. For example, infants stop looking when they repeatedly see stimuli that are perceived to be the same. This is habituation. If a stimulus appears that is perceived to be different, infants resume looking. This is dishabituation. Researchers have used the habituation and dishabituation phenomena, along with measurements of brain activity, to study color perception in infants. They have found that newborns can perceive differences among stimuli showing different amounts of black-and-white contrast but that they are unable to distinguish differences between colors (Burr, Morrone, &C Fiorentini, 1996). By three months of age, though, infants can discriminate among blue, green, yellow, and red (Adams, Courage, &c Mercer, 1991). Other researchers have found that newborns can perceive differences in the angles of lines (Slater et al., 1991). These studies and others suggest that we are born with some of the basic components of feature detection. Are we also born with the ability to combine features into perceptions of whole objects? This question generates lively debate among specialists in infant perception. Some research indicates that at one month of age, infants concentrate their gaze on one part of an object, such as the corner of a triangle (Goldstein, 2002). By two months though, the eyes systematically scan all the edges of the object, suggesting that only then has the infant begun to perceive the pattern of the object, or its shape, Bernstein text Module

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Maturation Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior - Preprogrammed The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence— standing before walking, babbling before talking—this is called maturation. Cephalocaudal: From head to toe Proximodistal: From center of the body to the extremities Maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it. Module

Motor Development Infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development. Experience has little effect on this sequence. -Universal -(Davis, Lipsitt) Sleep on back is associated with somewhat later crawling but not walking Back sleep causing later walking and skipping of crawling stage (Kolata & Markel 2001) -(Wilson) identical twins sit & walk on same days By the time a boy is 7 mo. old he can tell if his mother is angry. By the time he is 12 mo. old he has built an immunity and can ignore her. By 27 mo. boys will go behind their parents backs to take risks and break rules more than girls. Boys cause 90% of disruptions in schools 80% of dropouts are boys Boys earn 70% of D’s and F’s in school From The Male Brain by Louann Bizizendine MD. Link PBS Scientific American Body Sense Renee Altier for Worth Publishers Phototake Inc./ Alamy Images Profimedia.CZ s.r.o./ Alamy Jim Craigmyle/ Corbis Link Module

Averages for Americans…
Although the order in which children progress is similar, there are large individual differences in the ages at which each ability appears. The ages listed are averages for American children. It is not unusual for many of the skills to appear 1 or 2 months earlier than average or several months later (Frankenberg & Dodds, 1967; Harris & Liebert, 1991). Parents should not be alarmed if a child’s behavior differs some from the average. Module

Maturation and Infant Memory
Infantile amnesia: The earliest age of conscious memory is around 3½ years (Bauer, 2002). - Module

Infancy and Childhood: Physical Development
Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking moves a mobile--and can retain that learning for a month (Rovee-Collier, 1989, 1997). Psychologist Carolyn Rovee-Collier has shown that babies as young as 3 months old can learn to control their movements. In her experiments, babies lie on their backs under a colorful crib mobile. A ribbon is tied around the baby’s ankle and connected to the mobile. Whenever babies spontaneously kick their legs, the mobile jiggles and rattles. Within a few minutes, infants learn to kick faster. Their reward for kicking is a chance to see the mobile move (Hayne & Rovee-Collier, 1995). -Babies can learn that kicking moves a mobile & remember for about a month (Rovee-Collier) AM The Mind 14. Infant Cognitive Development Illustrates two ways of studying infant behavior: brain activity and visual fixation. -assimilation -programmed to record new info -show habituation – shows memory -6wks, grasp equal angles. Module

Fig. 3.8 Psychologist Carolyn Rovee-Collier has shown that babies as young as 3 months old can learn to control their movements. In her experiments, babies lie on their backs under a colorful crib mobile. A ribbon is tied around the baby’s ankle and connected to the mobile. Whenever babies spontaneously kick their legs, the mobile jiggles and rattles. Within a few minutes, infants learn to kick faster. Their reward for kicking is a chance to see the mobile move (Hayne & Rovee-Collier, 1995). © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit Module

Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Cognition all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating Module

Cognitive Development
Piaget said cognitive processes followed a series of stages, and even though certain children may reach stages before other children, the order of stages is invariable. Preview Question 4: How did Piaget view the development of a child’s mind, and what are current researchers’ views? Errors of scale Active Psych 3-4 #5 Errors of Scale Piaget believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make. Both photos: Courtesy of Judy DeLoache Module

Schema Generalizations that from as we experience the world. Provide a framework for understanding future experiences. Schema example 2:23 Bernstein Schema-a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information, they are building blocks of intellectual development Organized patterns of action or thought that children construct as they adapt to the environment, basic units of knowledge, building blocks of intellectual development. Piaget said schema can involve behaviors (such as sucking), mental symbols (words or images) or mental activities (imagining things). 23? 38. A schema can be described as (AP04) (A) An outer layer of the eye (B) A mental construct (C) A fissure between lobes of the brain (D) An optical illusion (E) A fixed response to a particular stimulus Module

Schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences.
Bernstein For example, a sucking schema consolidates their experiences of sucking into images of what objects can be sucked on and what kinds of sucking can be done. Module

Assimilation interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas Accommodation changing one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information or experiences Flash animation of schema development: Accommodation, creation or splitting of schema AM The Mind 14 Assimilation Programmed to record new info Show habituation 6 wks old can grasp equal angles Jean Piaget with a subject Example link 1:16 Module

Jean Piaget Originally worked on intelligence tests for children. Noticed children were making the same kinds of mistakes. Piaget’s cognitive development personality theory was based upon the premises of constructivism, and his interest in the root of knowledge drove him to focus his attention on the psychology of children. According to Piaget, people developed deliberate cognitive representations of their environment, which they could then manipulate. Module

Piaget’s Stages- Summary
Typical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena Sensorimotor Birth to nearly 2 years Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing) Object permanence Stranger anxiety Some cause and effect Preoperational About 2 to 6 years Concrete operational About 7 to 11 years Formal operational About 12 through adulthood Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning Pretend play Egocentrism Language development Think in symbols Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations Conservation Mathematical transformations Abstract reasoning, speculation Abstract logic Potential for moral reasoning Sensorimotor – infant’s mental activity confined to sensory functions. Can only form schema for things they can see, hear or touch. Thinking is doing Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete-operational, Formal-operational Smart People Cook Fish Module

Sensorimotor Stage In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of sight are also out of mind. Mental activity and schemas confined to sensory functions. 4-8 Months 8 32. A baby looks under the sofa for a ball that has just rolled underneath it. According to Jean Piaget, the baby's action shows development of (AP99) (A) conservation of mass (B) Reversibility (C) Object permanence (D) Logical thinking (E) Metacognition 21. Understanding that things continue to exists even when they are not within view is called (AP12) A. mental representation B deep structure C a schema D. object permanence E. assimilation Object permanence in dogs from the psychfiles Doug Goodman Object permanence in dogs 15:20 Module

Sensorimotor Stranger Anxiety fear of strangers that
infants commonly display beginning by about 8 months of age Presumably needed as we become more mobile. Module

Preoperational Stage Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the preoperational stage—too young to perform mental operations. During first half of period (2-4), begin to understand, create, and use symbols During second half (5-7), begin to make intuitive guesses about the world Cannot distinguish between the seen and unseen, or between dreams and reality. Use words to stand for objects. 5. Egocentrism, animism, and artificialism are characteristic of which of Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development? (AP12) A. Sensorimotor B. Preoperational C. Postformal D. Concrete Operational E. Formal operations Module

Conservation the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Vid clip of conservation (source?) Active psych 2-3 # 7 & 8 Conservation Do conservation extra credit. 8 79. Which Piagetian stage of cognitive development is characterized by mastery of conversation tasks? (AP04) (A) Sensorimotor (B) Preoperational (C) Concrete operations (D) Formal operations (E) Tertiary circular reactions 87. A young child shown a nine inch round bowl and a six inch round bowl containing equal amounts of popcorn says he is certain the smaller bowl has more popcorn than the larger bowl. This child has yet to acquire what Jean Piaget called (AP12) A. object permanence B. equilibrium C. functional fixedness D. conservation E. circular reactions Module

Conservation Number Keywords piaget, conservation
Figures from Gray (3e) In conservation of number tests, two equivalent rows of coins are placed side by side and the child says that there is the same number in each row. Then one row is spread apart and the child is again asked if there is the same number in each. Module 41

Conservation Length Keywords piaget, conservation
Figures from Gray (3e) In conservation of length tests, two same-length sticks are placed side by side and the child says that they are the same length. Then one is moved and the child is again asked if they are the same length. Module 42

Conservation Substance Keywords piaget, conservation
Figures from Gray (3e) In conservation of substance tests, two identical amounts of clay are rolled into similar-appearing balls and the child says that they both have the same amount of clay. Then one ball is rolled out and the child is again asked if they have the same amount. Module 43

Preoperational Egocentrism
Piaget concluded that preoperational children are egocentric. They cannot perceive things from another’s point of view. Shown three objects, asked to pick the picture of what the other person sees and they can’t do it. Egocentric – unable to take the viewpoints of others When asked to show her picture to mommy, 2-year-old Gabriella holds the picture facing her own eyes, believing that her mother can see it through her eyes. Module

…the ability to understand another’s mental state or perspective.
Theory of Mind -3 yr old, band aid box Band-Aids, shown pencils said others would say pencils -4-5 yr olds would say band aids -Autism impaired ability to infer states of mind The problem on the right probes such ability in children. …the ability to understand another’s mental state or perspective. Module

Concrete Operational Stage
Given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation problems. … and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities. Rely on actual experience Thinking no longer dominated by appearance Can reason about what is but not what is possible. 8 81. According to Jean Piaget, what is the earliest stage at which a child is capable of using simple logic to think about objects and events? (AP94) (A) Sensorimotor (B) Preoperational (C) Symbolic (D) Concrete operational (E) Formal operational 8 79. Which Piagetian stage of cognitive development is characterized by mastery of conversation tasks? (AP04) (C) Concrete operations (D) Formal operations (E) Tertiary circular reactions Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable. Module

Formal Operational Stage
Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason. Piaget called this formal operational thinking. Piaget devised several tests of formal operational thought. One of the simplest was the 'third eye problem'. Children were asked where they would put an extra eye, if they were able to have a third one, and why. Schaffer (1988) reported that when asked this question, 9-year-olds all suggested that the third eye should be on the forehead. However, 11-year-olds were more inventive, for example suggesting that a third eye placed on the hand would be useful for seeing round corners. Formal operational thinking has also been tested experimentally using the pendulum task. The method involved a length of string and a set of weights. Participants had to consider three factors (variables) the length of the string, the heaviness of the weight and the strength of push. The task was to work out which factor was most important in determining the speed of swing of the pendulum. Participants can vary the length of the pendulum string, and vary the weight. They can measure the pendulum speed by counting the number of swings per minute. To find the correct answer the participant has to grasp the idea of the experimental method -that is to vary one variable at a time (e.g. trying different lengths with the same weight). A participant who tries different lengths with different weights is likely to end up with the wrong answer. Children in the formal operational stage approached the task systematically, testing one variable (such as varying the length of the string) at a time to see its effect. However, younger children typically tried out these variations randomly or changed two things at the same time. Piaget concluded that the systematic approach indicated the children were thinking logically, in the abstract, and could see the relationships between things. These are the characteristics of the formal operational stage. Module

Piaget Criticisms Criticism of egocentricism, 3 year old with pink glasses says a white card is pink, asked what someone else sees and they say white (Liben 1978) Preoperational kids can conserve if allowed to count objects or have been trained to focus on correct dimensions (Gelman 1983) Children in pottery making cultures conserve mass sooner (Gardiner 2005) You don’t have to write these down but they are fascinating. The gist of them is that Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities. We have become more ingenious in the ways we “ask” them questions… Module

Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms
Piaget believed children in the sensorimotor stage could not think —they do not have any abstract concepts or ideas. Can combine experiences Show two screens, play one soundtrack children will watch screen that matches soundtrack (Soken 1992) Can remember...infants in cribs and kicking… Babies reach for things in the dark so they must have some mental representations before Piaget thought. #1 (Baillargeon 1994, 2002) search for images of study However, recent research shows that children in the sensorimotor stage can think and count. Children understand the basic laws of physics. They are amazed at how a ball can stop in midair or disappear. Module

Ballargeon impossible event
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Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms
2. Children can also count. Wynn (1992, 2000) showed that children stared longer at the wrong number of objects than the right ones. -5 months old Module

Impossible Display Babies know, too, that objects can’t go through solid boundaries or occupy the same position as other objects, and that objects generally travel through space in a continuous trajectory. If you claimed to have invented a transporter device like the one in “Star Trek,” a baby would scoff. Babies are born accountants. They can estimate quantities and distinguish between more and less. Show infants arrays of, say, 4 or 12 dots and they will match each number to an accompanying sound, looking longer at the 4 dots when they hear 4 sounds than when they hear 12 sounds, even if each of the 4 sounds is played comparatively longer. Babies also can perform a kind of addition and subtraction, anticipating the relative abundance of groups of dots that are being pushed together or pulled apart, and looking longer when the wrong number of dots appears. Babies are born Euclideans. Infants and toddlers use geometric clues to orient themselves in three-dimensional space, navigate through rooms and locate hidden treasures. Is the room square or rectangular? Did the nice cardigan lady put the Slinky in a corner whose left wall is long or short? Module

Preoperational Stage: Criticism
DeLoache (1987) showed that children as young as 3 years of age are able to use mental operations. When shown a model of a dog’s hiding place behind the couch, a 2½-year-old could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-old did. -3 yr old could think of the model as a symbol for the room Add pic Module

Formal Operational Stage: Criticism
Rudiments of such thinking begin earlier (age 7) than what Piaget suggested, since 7-year-olds can solve this… (Suppes, 1982). If John is in school, Mary is in school. John is in school. What can you say about Mary? Module

Piaget Stages Mnemonic
Smart People Cook Fish Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete-operational, Formal-operational Dr. Britt of “Hypo the Llamas” fame. Link: Dr. Britt Module

Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory
Today’s researchers believe the following: Development is a continuous process. Children express their mental abilities and operations at an earlier age, changes between stages less consistent than Piaget thought. Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition than Piaget thought. Piaget’s stage theory has been influential globally, validating a number of ideas regarding growth and development in many cultures and societies. Module

Social Development Critical Period
an optimal period, when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development Humans have a critical period for language. AM Mind 15. Social Development in Infancy Covers infant social/cognitive development and the emergence of self. Module

Social Development Attachment
an emotional tie with another person shown in young children when they seek closeness to the caregiver and display distress on separation Attachment originally thought for nourishment Module

Harlow and Attachment Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments
Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother Harry Harlow - Studied "hairy" monkeys 14. Harry Harlow’s experiments with rhesus monkeys suggest which of the following as most important for infants when establishing an attachment to their mothers?(AP12) A. The amount of time spent with the mother B. The mother’s ability to protect the infant from physical harm C. The mother’s ability to provide nourishment to the infant D. The tactile characteristics of the mother E. The particular vocalization of the mother Module

An infant monkey clings to a cloth-covered surrogate mother
An infant monkey clings to a cloth-covered surrogate mother. Baby monkeys becomes attached to the cloth “contact-comfort” mother but not to a similar wire mother. This is true even when the wire mother provides food. Contact comfort may also underlie the tendency of children to become attached to inanimate objects, such as blankets or stuffed toys. However, a study of 2- to 3-year-old “blanket-attached” children found that they were no more insecure than others (Passman, 1987). (So, maybe Linus is okay after all.) Link 2:59 Harlow on youtube Link 2:59 Module

Harlow’s Methodology and Results
Harlow began to raise monkeys with two individual artificial “mothers”: one a wire cylinder with a wooden head, and one a wire cylinder wrapped with terry cloth. He attached a bottle to the “mother” without the cloth. Harlow’s legacy: The bond of attachment is between parent and child (not child and food) Harlow’s study showed the powerful bond of attachment between infants and parents and emphasized the importance of nurturing traits such as warmth and softness, along with the ability to hold and cuddle a baby as well as feed it. Human parents also serve as the secure base from which an infant can begin to explore its environment. The need for attachment remains with us throughout our lives, as we draw comfort from having someone around to support us and make us feel secure. -Attachment occurs via touch - cloth mother - wire mother Monkeys separated from their mothers in early infancy and raised in their own cages Two artificial mothers: one wire and wood, one cloth Module 61

Hey dads,….be more involved…think attachment!
Mother-infant and father-infant interactions. These graphs show what occurred on routine days in a sample of 72 American homes. The graph on the left records the total amount of contact parents had with their babies, including such a actions as taking to, touching, hugging, or smiling a the infant. The graph on the right shows the amount of care-giving (diapering, washing, feeding, and so forth) done by each parent. Note that in both cases mother-infant interactions greatly exceed father-infant interactions. (Adapted from Belsky et al., 1984) Module

Social Development Imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life In some animals (goslings), imprinting is the cause of attachment. Konrad Lorenz – imprinting on ducklings -Humans do not imprint Definition: Rapid, relatively permanent type of learning that occurs during a limited time period early in life Lorenz (an ethologist) studied natural behavior patterns of animals Hatched baby geese in an incubator; when geese were born, first moving object they saw was Lorenz They followed him around and acted as though he were their mother! Link 1:39 Lorenz imprinting, no sound Link :40 Man adopts four goslings after parents are killed by a car. Goslings immediately imprint on man and follow him everywhere. Link 1:39 Link :40 Module

Separation Anxiety Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age, regardless of whether the children are home or sent to day care. Module

Attachment Mary Ainsworth – Strange situation
Unfamiliar playroom Mother and unfamiliar woman Women play with baby – leave briefly How to the babies respond? Link 3:15 Mary Ainsworth - attachment theory - Mary had a little lamb who was attached to her (everywhere she went, the lamb would go) Active Psych 2-3 #6 Strange Situation 8 59. Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation paradigm is typically used to test young children's (AP99) (A) Ego strength (B) Intelligence (C) Reaction time (D) Attachment (E) Incidental learning Link 3:15 Module

Secure Attachment Most children have secure attachment
Use mom as a home base and return periodically Happy to see mom upon return Most common in US. 60% Relaxed and attentive care giving becomes the backbone of secure attachment. Better peer relationships (Thompson 2006) Require less contact, guidance & discipline from teachers Less likely to act impulsively or aggressively Less likely to express frustration or display helplessness (Sroufe 1983) Can break down due to family strife (Thompson 2006) Module

Insecure Attachment Some have insecure attachment, 30%
Avoidant – avoid or ignore mother on return Ambivalent –upset when mom leaves, but vacillate between clingy and angry on return Disorganized – inconsistent, disturbed, disturbing – may reach out for mom while looking away (Moss 2004) Link 2:10 Harlow’s studies showed that monkeys experience great anxiety if their terry-cloth mother is removed. Link 2:10 Types of attachment Link 7:15 8 61. A 14-month-old toddler is placed in an unfamiliar situation with the child’s mother, who then leaves the room for a time. When the mother returns, the child squirms and tries to get away from the mother when picked up, but also seems distressed when placed back on the floor. Mary Ainsworth would consider this evidence of which of the following? (AP04) (A) Hyperactivity (B) Narcissistic personality type (C) A resistant or ambivalent attachment style (D) Disorganized behavior (E) Avoidance Module

Deprivation of Attachment
In such circumstances children become: What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming attachments? Prolonged deprivation If parental or care giving support is deprived for an extended period of time, children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems, including alterations in brain serotonin levels. Why differences Both rat pups and human infants develop secure attachments if the mother is relaxed and attentive. -(Fraley) Early attachments form foundations of adult relationships 67. Developmental research on the formation of attachment indicates that a child’s secure attachment to its mother during infancy is predictive of which of the following during its toddler years? (AP12) A. Social Rejection B. Impulsive behavior C. Social competence D. Divergent thinking E. Shyness Link 13:20 Sensitive caregiving during early childhood builds a healthy foundation for future development. Attachment disorder may be triggered during a child's earliest years when a healthy foundation for trust and attachment is interrupted by abuse and/or neglect, abandonment, separation from birth Withdrawn Frightened Unable to develop speech Link 13:20 Attachment Disorder Module

As adults they were unable to have normal sexual relations….
Your attachment could effect your sex life…wha……. As adults they were unable to have normal sexual relations…. Emotional problems in children in Russian and Romanian orphanages who had been neglected by caregivers – problems persisted Newborn monkeys isolated from contact showed dramatic disturbances. Would withdraw when normal infants present, huddling in corners or rocking for hours. As adults they were unable to have normal sexual relations. When females had babies by artificial insemination they tended to ignore them, when their infants were distressed the mothers physically abused them and sometimes killed them. Module

Social Development: Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.” Permissive submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use little punishment Authoritative both demanding and responsive set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open discussion Rejecting-Neglecting completely uninvolved; disengaged. Expect little and invest little Authoritative- highest self esteem, self reliance, Social competence Correlation is not causation Authoritarian (Bernstein p 86)-Tend to be unfriendly, distrustful, withdrawn, less likely to be empathetic, more likely to be aggressive, more likely to cheat, less likely to feel guilt when guilty Permissive-immature, dependent, unhappy, tantrums Uninvolved – more problems with impulsivity and aggression, non-compliance, moodiness, self-esteem 9 40. The most well-adjusted and socially competent chi1dren tend to come from homes where parents employ which of the following parental styles? (AP94) (A) Minimal supervision (B) Authoritarian (C) Authoritative (D) Indulgent (E) Permissive Module

Parenting Styles Authoritarian Authoritative Neglectful Permissive
Parental Acceptance Low High Authoritarian Authoritative Low High Parental Control Neglectful Permissive Module

Social Development: Child-Rearing Practices
Results based on correlations Parental behavior shaped by children Some researchers suggest it is not parenting style that makes a difference but the children’s perception of the discipline (Reiss 2000) Correlations significant but not large Most research with European-Americans Module

Personality Development
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages the childhood stages of development during which the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones Check Myers for improvements Module

Personality Development
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Stage Focus Oral Pleasure centers on the mouth-- (0-18 months) sucking, biting, chewing Anal Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder (18-36 months) elimination; coping with demands for control Phallic Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with (3-6 years) incestuous sexual feelings Latency Dormant sexual feelings (6 to puberty) Genital Maturation of sexual interests (puberty on) Frued’s Psychosexual Stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital) Octopuses Always Play Love Games. Bernstein, not in child dev. Module

Octapuses Always Play Love Games
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Link: Dr. Britt Module

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximate age Stage Description of Task Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants (1st year) develop a sense of basic trust. Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks (3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Elementary Competence vs Children learn the pleasure of applying (6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior. 9 75. A nine-year-old girl first learning about her capabilities on the playground and in the classroom would be in which of Erikson's stages of development? (AP99) (A) Industry vs. inferiority (B) Identity vs. role confusion (C) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (D) Integrity vs, despair (E) Trust vs. mistrust Module

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximate age Stage Description of Task Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by (teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated. Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri- (40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older (late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or up) failure. Module

Kohlberg (1981, 1984): formulated stages of moral development.
Developing Morality Kohlberg (1981, 1984): formulated stages of moral development. He posed moral dilemmas…such as “Should a person steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” Active Psych 2-3 #9 Moral Development : Heinz Dilemma 9 51. Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning is best described by which of the following? (AP94) (A) Personal conscience is innate and all human beings develop it at the same rate. (B) By adulthood, all people judge moral issues in terms of self-chosen principles. (C) Ethical principles are defined by ideals of reciprocity and human equality in individualistic societies, but by ideals of law and order in collectivistic societies. (D) Children grow up with morals similar to those of their parents. (E) Children progress from a morality based on punishment and reward to one defined by convention, and ultimately to one defined by abstract ethical principles. Link Where is morality at PBS 14:08 AP Photo/ Dave Martin 78 Module Module 78

Gilligan’s criticism…
Women score lower than men… Kohlberg stages derived from interviews with males. For males, advanced moral thought revolves around rules, rights, and abstract principles. For women, morality centers not on rights and rules but on interpersonal relationships and the ethics of compassion and care. Morality in the brain link Another criticism is that Kohlberg's theory is sex-biased, a view that has been thoughtfully expressed by one of Kohlberg's associates and co-authors, Carol Gilligan (1982). Gilligan observes that Kohlberg's stages were derived exclusively from interviews with males, and she charges that the stages reflect a decidedly male orientation. For males, advanced moral thought revolves around rules, rights, and abstract principles. The ideal is formal justice, in which all parties evaluate one another's claims in an impartial manner. This conception of morality, Gilligan argues, fails to capture the distinctly female voice on moral matters. For women, Gilligan says, morality centers not on rights and rules but on interpersonal relationships and the ethics of compassion and care. The ideal is not impersonal justice but more affiliative ways of living. Women's morality, in addition, is more contextualized, it is tied to real, ongoing relationships rather than abstract solutions to hypothetical dilemmas. Because of these sex differences, Gilligan says, men and women frequently score at different stages on Kohlberg's scale. Women typically score at stage 3, with its focus on interpersonal feelings, whereas men more commonly score at stages 4 and 5, which reflect more abstract conceptions of social organization. Thus, women score lower than men. If, however, Kohlberg's scale were more sensitive to women's distinctly interpersonal orientations, it would show that women also continue to develop their thinking beyond stage 3. Gilligan has made an initial effort to trace women's moral development. Since she believes that women's conceptions of care and affiliation are embedded in real-life situations, she has interviewed women facing a personal crisis--the decision to have an abortion. Through these interviews, Gilligan has tried to show that women move from a conventional to a postconventional mode of thinking. That is, they no longer consider their responsibilities in terms of what is conventionally expected, of them but in terms of their own insights into the ethics of care and responsibility. Module

(B) Stages are too limited in their critical-period parameters
9 81. Carol Gilligan’s criticism of Lawrence Kohlberg’s developmental theory is based on the argument that Kohlberg's (AP99) (A) Work has been invalidated by changes in the structure of families in the United States (B) Stages are too limited in their critical-period parameters (C) Theory underestimates the capabilities of infants and children (D) Stages do not apply equally well to all racial and ethnic groups (E) Theory fails to account sufficiently for differences between males and females 52. Carol Gilligan’s critique of Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development focuses primarily on (AP12) A. the order in which stages of moral development occur B. the key events that mark the transitions between stages of moral development C. the number of stages in moral development D. how the course of moral development might be altered within certain cultures E. differences between makes and females in the course of moral development Monkey morality A monkey will get upset if a friend gets a grape and he gets a cucumber for the same task. Take 2 dogs, reward one for shaking hands and not the other and it will go on strike. Module

Why is something immoral?
Would be all right for a brother and sister to have voluntary protected sex? Would it be all right for a family to eat a pet dog that had been killed by a car? Would it be all right to break a deathbed vow to visit your mother’s grave? We will split into groups and consider a couple questions. For each question you group should come up with whether or not it is wrong and a list of reasons why. From Better Angels of Our Nature Steven Pinker The psychologist Jonathan Haidt has underscored the ineffability of moral norms in a phenomenon he calls moral dumbfounding. Often people have an instant intuition that an action is immoral, and then struggle, often unsuccessfully, to come up with reasons why it is immoral. When Haidt asked participants, for example, whether it would be all right for a brother and sister to have voluntary protected sex, for a person to clean a toilet with a discarded American flag, for a family to eat a pet dog that had been killed by a car, for a man to buy a dead chicken and have sex with it, or for a person to break a deathbed vow to visit the grave of his mother, they said no in each case. But when asked for justifications, they floundered ineffectually before giving up and saying, "I don't know, I can't explain it, I just know it's wrong” Moral norms, even when ineffable, can sometimes be effective brakes on violent behavior. Module

3 Basic Levels of Moral Thinking
Preconventional Morality: Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward. Conventional Morality: By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake. Postconventional Morality: Affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles. 1. Follow rules when it is to their advantage Stage 1-A focus on direct consequences Negative actions will result in punishments, Positive actions will result in rewards Stage 2 Reflects the understanding that different people have different self-interests, which sometimes come in conflict Getting what one wants often requires giving something up in return Children in stage two have a better idea of how to receive rewards as well as to avoid punishment. 2. Follow rues such as duty to family, marriage vows or country Stage 3-An attempt to live up to the expectations of important others Positive actions will improve relations with significant others Negative actions will harm those relationships Children become acutely sensitive to what other people want and think. Action based on what others might think, social approval Stage 4 To maintain social order, people must resist personal pressures and follow the laws of the larger society Do your duty 3. Rules and laws arbitrary but respected because they protect human welfare Stage 5 A balance is struck between respect for laws and ethical principles that transcend specific laws Laws that fail to promote general welfare or that violate ethical principles can be changed, reinterpreted, or abandoned Primarily concerned with whether a law is fair or just. Stage 6 Self-chosen ethical principles Profound respect for sanctity of human life Moral principles take precedence over laws that might conflict with them, ie, conscientious objectors. Involves an acceptance of ethical principles that apply to everyone, like the Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” Criticism, favors European and N. American middle class vs. collectivist cultures like China Biased against western women, due to their reliance on relationships Active Psych 4 #7 Moral Thinking Summary At stage 1 children think of what is right as that which authority says is right. Doing the right thing is obeying authority and avoiding punishment. At stage 2, children are no longer so impressed by any single authority; they see that there are different sides to any issue. Since everything is relative, one is free to pursue one's own interests, although it is often useful to make deals and exchange favors with others. At stages 3 and 4, young people think as members of the conventional society with its values, norms, and expectations. At stage 3, they emphasize being a good person, which basically means having helpful motives toward people close to one At stage 4, the concern shifts toward obeying laws to maintain society as a whole. At stages 5 and 6 people are less concerned with maintaining society for it own sake, and more concerned with the principles and values that make for a good society. At stage 5 they emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give everyone a say, and at stage 6 they define the principles by which agreement will be most just. 82 Module Module 82

Module 7 09 17 13 Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. Kohlberg's stage 1 is similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thought. The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed set of rules which he or she must unquestioningly obey. To the Heinz dilemma, the child typically says that Heinz was wrong to steal the drug because "It's against the law," or "It's bad to steal," as if this were all there were to it. When asked to elaborate, the child usually responds in terms of the consequences involved, explaining that stealing is bad "because you'll get punished" (Kohlberg, 1958b). Although the vast majority of children at stage 1 oppose Heinz’s theft, it is still possible for a child to support the action and still employ stage 1 reasoning. For example, a child might say, "Heinz can steal it because he asked first and it's not like he stole something big; he won't get punished" (see Rest, 1973). Even though the child agrees with Heinz’s action, the reasoning is still stage 1; the concern is with what authorities permit and punish. Kohlberg calls stage 1 thinking "preconventional" because children do not yet speak as members of society. Instead, they see morality as something external to themselves, as that which the big people say they must do. Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. "Heinz," they might point out, "might think it's right to take the drug, the druggist would not." Since everything is relative, each person is free to pursue his or her individual interests. One boy said that Heinz might steal the drug if he wanted his wife to live, but that he doesn't have to if he wants to marry someone younger and better-looking (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 24). Another boy said Heinz might steal it because maybe they had children and he might need someone at home to look after them. But maybe he shouldn't steal it because they might put him in prison for more years than he could stand. (Colby and Kauffman. 1983, p. 300) What is right for Heinz, then, is what meets his own self-interests. You might have noticed that children at both stages 1 and 2 talk about punishment. However, they perceive it differently. At stage 1 punishment is tied up in the child's mind with wrongness; punishment "proves" that disobedience is wrong. At stage 2, in contrast, punishment is simply a risk that one naturally wants to avoid. Although stage 2 respondents sometimes sound amoral, they do have some sense of right action. This is a notion of fair exchange or fair deals. The philosophy is one of returning favors--"If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." To the Heinz story, subjects often say that Heinz was right to steal the drug because the druggist was unwilling to make a fair deal; he was "trying to rip Heinz off," Or they might say that he should steal for his wife "because she might return the favor some day" (Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 19). Respondents at stage 2 are still said to reason at the preconventional level because they speak as isolated individuals rather than as members of society. They see individuals exchanging favors, but there is still no identification with the values of the family or community. Module

Level II. Conventional Morality
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. At this stage children--who are by now usually entering their teens--see morality as more than simple deals. They believe that people should live up to the expectations of the family and community and behave in "good" ways. Good behavior means having good motives and interpersonal feelings such as love, empathy, trust, and concern for others. Heinz, they typically argue, was right to steal the drug because "He was a good man for wanting to save her," and "His intentions were good, that of saving the life of someone he loves." Even if Heinz doesn't love his wife, these subjects often say, he should steal the drug because "I don't think any husband should sit back and watch his wife die" (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp ; Kohlberg, 1958b). If Heinz’s motives were good, the druggist's were bad. The druggist, stage 3 subjects emphasize, was "selfish," "greedy," and "only interested in himself, not another life." Sometimes the respondents become so angry with the druggist that they say that he ought to be put in jail (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp , 40-42). A typical stage 3 response is that of Don, age 13: It was really the druggist's fault, he was unfair, trying to overcharge and letting someone die. Heinz loved his wife and wanted to save her. I think anyone would. I don't think they would put him in jail. The judge would look at all sides, and see that the druggist was charging too much. (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25) We see that Don defines the issue in terms of the actors' character traits and motives. He talks about the loving husband, the unfair druggist, and the understanding judge. His answer deserves the label "conventional "morality" because it assumes that the attitude expressed would be shared by the entire community—"anyone" would be right to do what Heinz did (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25). As mentioned earlier, there are similarities between Kohlberg's first three stages and Piaget's two stages. In both sequences there is a shift from unquestioning obedience to a relativistic outlook and to a concern for good motives. For Kohlberg, however, these shifts occur in three stages rather than two. Module

Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. Stage 3 reasoning works best in two-person relationships with family members or close friends, where one can make a real effort to get to know the other's feelings and needs and try to help. At stage 4, in contrast, the respondent becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole. Now the emphasis is on obeying laws, respecting authority, and performing one's duties so that the social order is maintained. In response to the Heinz story, many subjects say they understand that Heinz's motives were good, but they cannot condone the theft. What would happen if we all started breaking the laws whenever we felt we had a good reason? The result would be chaos; society couldn't function. As one subject explained, I don't want to sound like Spiro Agnew, law and order and wave the flag, but if everybody did as he wanted to do, set up his own beliefs as to right and wrong, then I think you would have chaos. The only thing I think we have in civilization nowadays is some sort of legal structure which people are sort of bound to follow. [Society needs] a centralizing framework. (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp ) Because stage 4, subjects make moral decisions from the perspective of society as a whole, they think from a full-fledged member-of-society perspective (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 27). You will recall that stage 1 children also generally oppose stealing because it breaks the law. Superficially, stage 1 and stage 4 subjects are giving the same response, so we see here why Kohlberg insists that we must probe into the reasoning behind the overt response. Stage 1 children say, "It's wrong to steal" and "It's against the law," but they cannot elaborate any further, except to say that stealing can get a person jailed. Stage 4 respondents, in contrast, have a conception of the function of laws for society as a whole--a conception which far exceeds the grasp of the younger child. Module

Level III. Postconventional Morality
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. At stage 4, people want to keep society functioning. However, a smoothly functioning society is not necessarily a good one. A totalitarian society might be well-organized, but it is hardly the moral ideal. At stage 5, people begin to ask, "What makes for a good society?" They begin to think about society in a very theoretical way, stepping back from their own society and considering the rights and values that a society ought to uphold. They then evaluate existing societies in terms of these prior considerations. They are said to take a "prior-to-society" perspective (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 22). Stage 5 respondents basically believe that a good society is best conceived as a social contract into which people freely enter to work toward the benefit of all They recognize that different social groups within a society will have different values, but they believe that all rational people would agree on two points. First they would all want certain basic rights, such as liberty and life, to be protected Second, they would want some democratic procedures for changing unfair law and for improving society. In response to the Heinz dilemma, stage 5 respondents make it clear that they do not generally favor breaking laws; laws are social contracts that we agree to uphold until we can change them by democratic means. Nevertheless, the wife’s right to live is a moral right that must be protected. Thus, stage 5 respondent sometimes defend Heinz’s theft in strong language: It is the husband's duty to save his wife. The fact that her life is in danger transcends every other standard you might use to judge his action. Life is more important than property. Module

This young man went on to say that "from a moral standpoint" Heinz should save the life of even a stranger, since to be consistent, the value of a life means any life. When asked if the judge should punish Heinz, he replied: Usually the moral and legal standpoints coincide. Here they conflict. The judge should weight the moral standpoint more heavily but preserve the legal law in punishing Heinz lightly. (Kohlberg, 1976, p. 38) Stage 5 subjects,- then, talk about "morality" and "rights" that take some priority over particular laws. Kohlberg insists, however, that we do not judge people to be at stage 5 merely from their verbal labels. We need to look at their social perspective and mode of reasoning. At stage 4, too, subjects frequently talk about the "right to life," but for them this right is legitimized by the authority of their social or religious group (e.g., by the Bible). Presumably, if their group valued property over life, they would too. At stage 5, in contrast, people are making more of an independent effort to think out what any society ought to value. They often reason, for example, that property has little meaning without life. They are trying to determine logically what a society ought to be like (Kohlberg, 1981, pp ; Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 83). Module

Stage 6: Universal Principles
Stage 6: Universal Principles. Stage 5 respondents are working toward a conception of the good society. They suggest that we need to (a) protect certain individual rights and (b) settle disputes through democratic processes. However, democratic processes alone do not always result in outcomes that we intuitively sense are just. A majority, for example, may vote for a law that hinders a minority. Thus, Kohlberg believes that there must be a higher stage--stage 6--which defines the principles by which we achieve justice. Kohlberg's conception of justice follows that of the philosophers Kant and Rawls, as well as great moral leaders such as Gandhi and Martin Luther King. According to these people, the principles of justice require us to treat the claims of all parties in an impartial manner, respecting the basic dignity, of all people as individuals. The principles of justice are therefore universal; they apply to all. Thus, for example, we would not vote for a law that aids some people but hurts others. The principles of justice guide us toward decisions based on an equal respect for all. In actual practice, Kohlberg says, we can reach just decisions by looking at a situation through one another's eyes. In the Heinz dilemma, this would mean that all parties--the druggist, Heinz, and his wife--take the roles of the others. To do this in an impartial manner, people can assume a "veil of ignorance" (Rawls, 1971), acting as if they do not know which role they will eventually occupy. If the druggist did this, even he would recognize that life must take priority over property; for he wouldn't want to risk finding himself in the wife's shoes with property valued over life. Thus, they would all agree that the wife must be saved--this would be the fair solution. Such a solution, we must note, requires not only impartiality, but the principle that everyone is given full and equal respect. If the wife were considered of less value than the others, a just solution could not be reached. Module

Until recently, Kohlberg had been scoring some of his subjects at stage 6, but he has temporarily stopped doing so, For one thing, he and other researchers had not been finding subjects who consistently reasoned at this stage. Also, Kohlberg has concluded that his interview dilemmas are not useful for distinguishing between stage 5 and stage 6 thinking. He believes that stage 6 has a clearer and broader conception of universal principles (which include justice as well as individual rights), but feels that his interview fails to draw out this broader understanding. Consequently, he has temporarily dropped stage 6 from his scoring manual, calling it a "theoretical stage" and scoring all postconventional responses as stage 5 (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 28). Theoretically, one issue that distinguishes stage 5 from stage 6 is civil disobedience. Stage 5 would be more hesitant to endorse civil disobedience because of its commitment to the social contract and to changing laws through democratic agreements. Only when an individual right is clearly at stake does violating the law seem justified. At stage 6, in contrast, a commitment to justice makes the rationale for civil disobedience stronger and broader. Martin Luther King, for example, argued that laws are only valid insofar as they are grounded in justice, and that a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. King also recognized, of course, the general need for laws and democratic processes (stages 4 and 5), and he was therefore willing to accept the penalities for his actions. Nevertheless, he believed that the higher principle of justice required civil disobedience (Kohlberg, 198 1, p. 43). Module

Woman needs drug and can’t afford it, man steals it…should he have done this?
1 Should not steal because he will be jailed 2 Should steal because wife will repay him later 3 Should steal because he loves his wife and has duty to care for her, she and rest of family will approve 4 Should steal because he has a duty to care for her or not steal because it is illegal. 5 Should steal because life is more important 6 Should steal because of the principle of preserving and respecting life (E) Children progress from a morality based on punishment and reward to one defined by convention, and ultimately to one defined by abstract ethical principles. Module

Moral action involves doing the right thing.
People who engage in doing the right thing develop empathy for others and the self-discipline to resist their own impulses. Learning to behave in moral ways requires… 1. Consistent modeling 2. Real life experience 3. Situational factors that support moral actions Delay gratification In this short talk from TED U, Joachim de Posada shares a landmark experiment on delayed gratification -- and how it can predict future success. With priceless video of kids trying their hardest not to eat the marshmallow. Moral action begets moral action Delay Gratification link at TED 6:02 91 Module Module 91

Star wars according to a 3 yo.
Why is this here? Link Module

Adolescence Ch 4 Online link
93 Module Module 93

Adolescence Adolescence Puberty
the transition period from childhood to adulthood extending from puberty to independence Puberty the period of sexual maturation when a person becomes capable of reproduction Module

Physical Development Adolescence begins with puberty (sexual maturation). Puberty occurs earlier in females (11 years) than males (13 years). Thus height in females increases before males. Preview Question 6: What major physical changes occur during adolescence? Module

Primary Sexual Characteristics
During puberty primary sexual characteristics — the reproductive organs and external genitalia — develop rapidly. Ellen Senisi/ The Image Works Module

Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Also secondary sexual characteristics—the nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys develop. Pubic hair and armpit hair grow in both sexes. Module

Brain Development …at adolescence, selective pruning of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient. Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However,… 98 Module Module 98

Frontal Cortex During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness. Frontal lobe maturation brings improved judgement Myelination continues Module

Question (summarized)
Human Sexuality Gender Differences in Sexuality Males and females, to a large extent, behave and think similarly. Differences in sexes arise in regards to reproductive behaviors. Citation Database: PsycARTICLES [Journal Article] Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Oliver, Mary B.; Hyde, Janet S. Psychological Bulletin, Vol 114(1), Jul 1993, doi: / Abstract This meta-analysis surveyed 177 usable sources that reported data on gender differences on 21 different measures of sexual attitudes and behaviors. The largest gender difference was in incidence of masturbation: Men had the greater incidence (d = .96). There was also a large gender difference in attitudes toward casual sex: Males had considerably more permissive attitudes (d = .81). There were no gender differences in attitudes toward homosexuality or in sexual satisfaction. Most other gender differences were in the small-to-moderate range. Gender differences narrowed from the 1960s to the 1980s for many variables. Chodorow's neoanalytic theory, sociobiology, social learning theory, social role theory, and script theory are discussed in relation to these findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) Gender Differences in Receptivity to Sexual Offers Preview Buy now DOI: /J056v02n01_04Russell D. Clark PhDa & Elaine Hatfield PhDb pages 39-55 Available online: 22 Oct 2008 Alert me TOC alert TOC RSS feed Citation alert Citation RSS feed According to cultural stereotypes, men are more eager for sex than are women; women are more likely to set limits on such activity. In this paper, we review the work of theorists who have argued in favor of this proposition and review the interview and correlational data which support this contention. Finally, we report two experimental tests of ihis hypothesis. In these experiments, conducted in 1978 and 1982, male and female confederates of average attractiveness approached potential partners with one of three requests: "Would you go out tonight?" "Will you come over to my apartment?" or "Would you go to bed with me?" The great majority of men were willing to have a sexual liaison with the women who approached them. Women were not. Not one woman agreed to a sexual liaison. Many possible reasons for this marked gender difference were discussed. These studies were run in 1978 and It has since become important to track how the threat of AIDS is affecting men and women's willingness to date, come to an apartment, or to engage in casual sexual relations. Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures Article author query buss dm [PubMed] [Google Scholar] David M. Bussa1 a1 Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI Electrnic mall:david Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study. Question (summarized) Male Female Casual sex 58% 34% Sex for affection 25% 48% Think about sex everyday 54% 19% 100 Module 100

Natural Selection & Mating Preferences
Natural selection has caused males to send their genes into the future by mating with multiple females since males have lower costs involved. Males more likely to initiate sexual activity. “if two people really like each other it is all right for them to have sex even when they have known each other for a short time” 58% men 34% Women “I can imagine myself being comfortable enjoying casual sex with different partners” 48% men 12% women Gay men's attitudes similar to heterosexual men’s However, females select one mature and caring male because of the higher costs involved with pregnancy and nursing. 101 Module 101

“I have been noticing you around campus and I find you to be very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight? Russell Clark and Elaine Hatfield (1978) Average-looking student research assistants Women = 0% Men = 75% Some men replied “Why do we have to wait until tonight. Repeated in 1982 and in the late 1980s with the same results. (50-75% of the men said yes.) Module

Buss & Schmidt, Psychological Review , 100, 204-232, 1993
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Mating Preferences Males look for youthful appearing females in order to pass their genes into the future. Females, on the other hand, look for maturity, dominance, affluence, and boldness in males. Youthful shape, waist to hip ratio waist 1/3rd of hips .7 ratio also reported for congenitally blind men too. 104 Data based on 37 cultures. Module 104

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Developing Reasoning Power
According to Piaget, adolescents can handle abstract problems, i.e., they can perform formal operations. Adolescents can judge good from evil, truth and justice, and think about God in deeper terms. William Thomas Cain/ Getty Images AP/Wide World Photos Module

Cognitive Development
Adolescents’ ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. In particular, they may think about the following: Their own thinking. What others are thinking. What others are thinking about them. How ideals can be reached. They criticize society, parents, and even themselves. Preview Question 7: How did Piaget and Kohlberg describe cognitive and moral development during adolescence? Module

Adolescence: Social Development
Identity one’s sense of self the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles Intimacy the ability to form close, loving relationships a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood (Erikson) Once you are comfortable with who you are then you can form relationships Module

Parents and Peers are influential. Peers more than parents sometimes…
Teens relate to their parents on a number of things, including religiosity and career choices. Peer approval and relationships are also very important. Although teens become independent of their parents as they grow older, they nevertheless… (Gold & Yanof) HS girls w/ most affectionate relationships w/ their mothers have most intimate friendships with their girlfriends. (Resnik) Teens close to parents tend to be healthy, happy and do well in school. Influence Cialdini Free-Thinking Youth: We frequently think of teenagers as rebellious and independent-minded. It is important to recognize, however, that typically that is true only with respect to their parents. Among similar others, they conform massively to what social proof tells them is proper. 109 Module Module 109

More humor from graph jam
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Gender Development Based on genetic makeup, males and females are more alike than different,….the majority of our inherited genes (45 chromosomes are unisex) are similar. Preview Question 7: How do nature and nurture interact to define us as male or female? Compared to men the avg. woman has 70% more fat, 40% less muscle, 5 inches shorter Women doubly vulnerable to depression and 10x more likely to have eating disorders. Women reach puberty 2 yrs earlier than men Men 4x more likely to suicide or alcoholism more likely to be autistic, color blind, hyperactive or have anti-social personality. Males and females differ biologically in body fat, muscle, height, onset of puberty, and life expectancy. Module Module 111

The Nature and Nurture of Gender
X Chromosome the sex chromosome found in both men and women females have two; males have one an X chromosome from each parent produces a female child Y Chromosome the sex chromosome found only in men when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child Father “decides” sex of child Module Module 112

Biological sex is determined by the twenty-third pair of chromosomes.
Biology of Sex Biological sex is determined by the twenty-third pair of chromosomes. If the pair is XX, a female is produced. If the pair is XY, a male child is produced. Module Module 113

Sex linked disorders Klinefelter's syndrome, 47, XXY, or XXY syndrome is a condition in which human males have an extra X chromosome. Because of the extra chromosome, individuals with the condition are usually referred to as "XXY Males", or "47, XXY Males".[2] In humans, Klinefelter's syndrome is the most common sex chromosome disorder[3] and the second most common condition caused by the presence of extra chromosomes. The condition exists in roughly 1 out of every 1,000 males. One in every 500 males has an extra X chromosome but does not have the syndrome.[4] Other mammals also have the XXY syndrome, including mice.[5] The principal effects are development of small testicles and reduced fertility. Turner syndrome or Ullrich-Turner syndrome (also known as "Gonadal dysgenesis"[1]:550) encompasses several conditions, of which monosomy X (absence of an entire sex chromosome, the Barr body) is most common. It is a chromosomal abnormality in which all or part of one of the sex chromosomes is absent (unaffected humans have 46 chromosomes, of which two are sex chromosomes). Typical females have two X chromosomes, but in Turner syndrome, one of those sex chromosomes is missing or has other abnormalities. In some cases, the chromosome is missing in some cells but not others, a condition referred to as mosaicism[2] or 'Turner mosaicism'. Module Module 114

Occurring in 1 out of every 2500 girls, the syndrome manifests itself in a number of ways. There are characteristic physical abnormalities, such as short stature, swelling, broad chest, low hairline, low-set ears, and webbed necks.[3] Girls with Turner syndrome typically experience gonadal dysfunction (non-working ovaries), which results in amenorrhea (absence of menstrual cycle) and sterility. Concurrent health concerns are also frequently present, including congenital heart disease, hypothyroidism (reduced hormone secretion by the thyroid), diabetes, vision problems, hearing concerns, and many autoimmune diseases.[4] Finally, a specific pattern of cognitive deficits is often observed, with particular difficulties in visuospatial, mathematical, and memory areas.[5] Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe recessive X-linked form of muscular dystrophy characterized by rapid progression of muscle degeneration, eventually leading to loss of ambulation and death. This affliction affects one in 3500 males, making it the most prevalent of muscular dystrophies. In general, only males are afflicted, though females can be carriers. Females may be afflicted if the father is afflicted and the mother is also a carrier/ affected. The disorder is caused by a mutation in the dystrophin gene, located in humans on the X chromosome (Xp21). The dystrophin gene codes for the protein dystrophin, an important structural component within muscle tissue. Dystrophin provides structural stability to the dystroglycan complex (DGC), located on the cell membrane. Symptoms usually appear in male children before age 5 and may be visible in early infancy. Progressive proximal muscle weakness of the legs and pelvis associated with a loss of muscle mass is observed first. Eventually this weakness spreads to the arms, neck, and other areas. Early signs may include pseudohypertrophy (enlargement of calf and deltoid muscles), low endurance, and difficulties in standing unaided or inability to ascend staircases. As the condition progresses, muscle tissue experiences wasting and is eventually replaced by fat and fibrotic tissue (fibrosis). By age 10, braces may be required to aid in walking but most patients are wheelchair dependent by age 12. Module

Klinefelter's syndrome Anemia, hereditary sideroblastic
Turner syndrome triple X syndrome Klinefelter's syndrome Anemia, hereditary sideroblastic Anemia, sex-linked hypochromic sideroblastic ANH1 Ceramide trihexosidase deficiency Rett syndrome Lesch-Nyhan syndrome sideroblastic anemia Dihydrotestosterone receptor deficiency androgen insensitivity syndrome McLeod syndrome Genetic hypercalciuria Siderius X-linked mental retardation syndrome Alpha-galactosidase A deficiency Anderson-Fabry disease Angiokeratoma Corporis Diffusum Fabry disease fragile X syndrome Incontinentia pigmenti XYY syndrome Module Module 116

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Testosterone the most important of the male sex hormones both males and females have it additional testosterone in males stimulates growth of male sex organs in the fetus development of male sex characteristics during puberty Module Module 118

Sexual Differentiation
In the mother’s womb, the male fetus is exposed to testosterone (because of the Y chromosome), which leads to the development of male genitalia. At 7 wks embryos anatomically indistinguishable Males born without penises – androgenic insensitivity syndrome 14 sexual reassignments & raised as girls 6 later declared themselves males 3 unclear sexual identity 5 living as females Case of botched circumcision in the AP text If low levels of testosterone are released in the uterus, the result is female genetalia. Module Module 119

Disorders of differentiation…
What if you are neither…. AIS Tell about undiscovered case from bio-psych… Androgen insensitivity syndrome Testicular feminization Last reviewed: August 31, 2010. Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is when a person who is genetically male (has one X and one Y chromosome) is resistant to male hormones called androgens. As a result, the person has some or all of the physical characteristics of a woman, despite having the genetic makeup of a man. Causes, incidence, and risk factors Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is caused by various genetic defects on the X chromosome that make the body unable to respond to the hormones responsible for the male appearance. The syndrome is divided into two main categories: Complete AIS Incomplete AIS Complete androgen insensitivity prevents the development of the penis and other male body parts. The child born appears to be a girl. The complete form of the syndrome occurs in as many as 1 in 20,000 live births. The degree of sexual ambiguity varies widely in persons with incomplete AIS. Incomplete AIS can include other disorders such as Reifenstein syndrome (also known as Gilbert-Dreyfus syndrome or Lubs syndrome), which is associated with breast development in men, failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum after birth, and hypospadias, a condition where the opening of the urethra is on the underside, rather than at the tip, of the penis. Also included in the broad category of incomplete AIS is infertile male syndrome, which is sometimes due to an androgen receptor disorder. Module

A vagina but no cervix or uterus
Symptoms A person with complete AIS appears to be female but has no uterus, and has very little armpit and pubic hair. At puberty, female secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts) develop, but menstruation and fertility do not. Persons with incomplete AIS may have both male and female physical characteristics. Many have partial closing of the outer vaginal lips, an enlarged clitoris, and a short vagina. There may be: A vagina but no cervix or uterus Inguinal hernia with a testis that can be felt during a physical exam Normal female breast development Testes in the abdomen or other unusual places in the body Signs and tests Complete AIS is rarely discovered during childhood, unless a mass is felt in the abdomen or groin that turns out to be a testicle when it is explored surgically. Most people with this condition are not diagnosed until they fail to menstruate or have difficulties becoming pregnant. Incomplete AIS, however, is often discovered during childhood because the person may have both male and female physical characteristics. Tests used to diagnose this condition may include: Blood work to check levels of testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Genetic testing (karyotyping) Pelvic ultrasound Other blood tests may be done to help tell the difference between AIS and androgen deficiency. Module

Estrogen replacement is prescribed after puberty.
Treatment Unusually located testicular tissue may not be removed until a child completes puberty and growth is complete. At this time, the testis may be removed because they can develop cancer like any undescended testicle. Estrogen replacement is prescribed after puberty. Treatment and gender assignment can be a very complex issue, and must be individualized with great care. Expectations (prognosis) The outlook for complete AIS is good if at-risk testicular tissue is removed at the proper time. The outlook for incomplete AIS depends on the presence and severity of ambiguous genitalia. Complications Complications include testicular cancer, infertility, and complex psychosocial issues. References Wysolmerski JJ. Insogna KL. The parathyroid glands, hypercalcemia, and hypocalcemia. In: Kronenberg HM, Schlomo M, Polansky KS, Larsen PR, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 11th ed. St. Louis, Mo: WB Saunders; 2008:chap 266. Bringhurst FR, Demay MB, Kronenberg HM. Disorders of mineral metabolism. In: Kronenberg HM, Schlomo M, Polansky KS, Larsen PR, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 11th ed. St. Louis, Mo: WB Saunders; 2008:chap 27. Review Date: 8/31/2010. Reviewed by: Ari S. Eckman, MD, Chief, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Trinitas Regional Medical Center, Elizabeth, NJ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. Module

Disorders of Differentiation…
Disorders of Sex Differentiation - A General Outline Sex differentiation is a complex physiological process comprised of many steps. Problems associated with sex differentiation, or syndromes of intersexuality, occur when errors in development take place at any of these steps. Genetic Sex Problems can arise at fertilization when chromosomal sex is established. For example, girls with Turner Syndrome have a 45,XO karyotype and boys with Klinefelter Syndrome have a 47,XXY karyotype. It is also known that some women have a 46,XY or 47,XXX karyotype and some men a 46,XX or 47,XYY karyotype. Clearly then, when it is stated that 46,XY refers to male sex and 46,XX refers to female sex, this is a generalization which applies to most, but not all, individuals. Module

Gonadal Sex Disorders of sex differentiation can occur when a bipotential gonad is incapable of developing into a testis or an ovary. The inability to develop testes may occur if a gene such as SRY is absent or deficient. When this is the case, a 46,XY fetus will not receive the SRY signal to develop testes despite the presence of a Y chromosome. Additionally, 46,XY fetuses may begin to develop testes, but this development can be thwarted, and subsequently MIS and androgen production may be absent or diminished. Finally, the normal disappearance of germ cells associated with ovarian development in fetuses is so accelerated in Turner Syndrome that by birth these babies possess gonadal streaks as opposed to normal ovaries. Mullerian and Wolffian Duct Development Intersexuality can also result as a consequence of problems related to Mullerian or Wolffian duct development. For example, MIS secretion accompanied by the absence of androgens or the inability to respond to androgens can result in a fetus lacking both male and female internal duct structures. In contrast, the absence of MIS accompanied by androgen secretion can result in a fetus possessing both male and female internal duct structures to varying degrees. Module

normal male but with a very small penis (micropenis)
External Genitalia Babies born with sex differentiation syndromes possess external genitalia that can usually be classified as either: normal female ambiguous normal male but with a very small penis (micropenis) Normal female external genitalia develop among 46,XY intersex patients when the genital tubercle, genital swellings, and genital folds either completely lack exposure to, or are totally incapable of responding to, male hormones. As a result, masculinization of the external genital structures is not possible. In such cases, the genital tubercle develops into a clitoris, the genital swellings develop into the labia majora and the genital folds develop into the labia minora. Ambiguous external genitalia develop in female patients when the external genital structures are exposed to greater-than-normal amounts of male hormones (masculinized females) or in male patients when less-than-normal amounts of male hormones (under-masculinized males) occurs. Thus, in these patients, external genitalia develop in a manner that is neither female nor male, but rather is somewhere in between the two. Module

For instance, patients with ambiguous external genitalia may possess a phallus which ranges in size from resembling a large clitoris to a small penis. Additionally, these patients may possess a structure that resembles partially fused labia or a split scrotum. Finally, patients with ambiguous external genitalia often possess a urethral (urinary) opening that is not at the tip of the phallus (normal male position), but is instead located elsewhere on the phallus or perineum. The atypical positioning of the urethra in such instances is referred to as hypospadius. Babies born with a penis that is much smaller than normal (micropenis) have a completely normal appearing external genitalia (i.e)., the urethra is properly located at the tip of the phallus and the scrotum is completely fused). However, the size of the phallus is closer to that of a normal clitoris than a normal penis. Module

Sexual Differentiation
Sexual differentiation is not only biological, but also psychological and social. However, genes and hormones play a very important role in defining gender, especially in altering the brain and influencing gender differences as a result. Module Module 127

Gender Differences in Aggression
Men express themselves and behave in more aggressive ways than do women. Deliver more painful shocks (Betencouirt 1987) More physical aggression across cultures Arrest rate for murder 9/1 male to female 2005 Survey on war in Iraq 51% men, 34% women This aggression gender gap appears in many cultures and at various ages. In males, the nature of this aggression is physical. Module Module 128

Gender and Social Power
In most societies, men are socially dominant and are perceived as such. Men more autocratic Men more likely to offer opinions Women more likely to express support In 2005, men accounted for 84% of the governing parliaments. Module Module 129

Gender Differences and Connectedness
Young and old, women form more connections (friendships) with people than do men. Men emphasize freedom and self-reliance. Look at the kinds of play the kids are doing. Oliver Eltinger/ Zefa/ Corbis Dex Image/ Getty Images Module Module 130

Gender Roles Our culture shapes our gender roles — expectations of how men and women are supposed to behave. Roles vary widely Subject to cultural variation Gender Identity — means how a person views himself or herself in terms of gender. Module Module 131

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Richard Scary book images Module Module 139

Gender and Culture Men work longer hours and less at home Women 71% more Child care 90% women in 2 parent families run the household A February paper in the American Sociological Review reported that married couples in which men take on a greater share of the dishes, laundry and other traditionally female chores had sex less often than average, which in this study was about five times a month. Yet couples in which men confined themselves largely to traditionally male chores such as yard work enjoyed sex more frequently than average. Study co-author Julie Brines, a sociologist at the University of Washington, says men and women have deep-seated ideas about what is masculine and feminine. Displays of masculinity may evoke feminine displays in women, which activates or intensifies sexual charge. Put the man on a rider mower, in other words, and boom—fireworks. Stand him at a sudsy sink, and it's a probable no go. Module Module 140

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Gender Roles: Theories
Social Learning Theory proposes that we learn gender behavior like any other behavior—reinforcement, punishment, and observation. Gender Schema Theory suggests that we learn a cultural “recipe” of how to be a male or a female, which influences our gender- based perceptions and behaviors. SL Big boys don’t cry You are such a good mommy w/ your dolls When typing is discouraged kids organize themselves GS Young children are gender detectives Kids hunt for cues about gender Module Module 144

Role Reversal Module Module 145

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Adulthood Ch 5 Online link
Add adulthood vid links from Annenberg Media 148 Module 148

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Adulthood – Difficulty of defining stages
1 yr old and 10 yr olds very different… 30-40 year olds different? 20-50? Although adulthood begins sometime after a person’s mid-twenties, defining adulthood into stages is more difficult than defining the stages of childhood or adolescence. Rick Doyle/ Corbis 150 Module 150

Peaks at about 20 and then declines.
Physical Development Peaks at about 20 and then declines. Preview Question 9: How do our bodies change in middle and late adulthood? Swimmers and sprinters peak in their 20’s Active psych 4 Exercise #12 generating new brain cells 151 Module 151

http://blogs. discovermagazine
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Batting performance of Willie Mays.
Middle Adulthood Around age 50, women go through menopause, and men experience decreased levels of hormones and fertility. Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin to decline after the mid-twenties. Males have declining sperm count Over 60 39% satisfied with sex. 39% wanted more sex 154 Batting performance of Willie Mays. Module 154

Old Age: Sensory Abilities
After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks. 60 Year old retina getting 1/3rd light of a 20 yr old 80 Year olds have a loss of about 5% of brain weight. Women’s brains shrink more slowly. Physical exercise forestalls decline,…use it or lose it. Men shrink about an inch, women about 2 inches AM The Mind 18. Effects of Mental and Physical Activity on the Brain/Mind Introduces Dr. William Greenough's expanded studies on the effects of mental and physical activity on the aging brain and mind. Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit 155 Module 155

Aging As we age our physical and mental abilites are in decline.

Old Age: Motor Abilities
At age 70, our motor abilities also decline. A 70-year-old is no match for a 20-year-old individual. Fatal accidents also increase around this age. Immune systems weaken but have many antibodies, older people actually less likely to get the flu. Fatal accident rate for 85 year olds exceeds 16 year olds…driving fewer miles later in life. 157 Module 157

Cognitive Dev.- Aging and Memory
Memory is generally in decline. Events we remember well, but names are increasingly difficult. “Older adults had more difficulty than younger adults remembering which tidbits were secrets and which were not.” Preview Question 10: In what ways do memory and intelligence change as we age? Do cognitive abilities like memory, creativity, and intelligence decline with age the same way physical abilities do? As we age, we remember some things well. These include recent past events and events that happened a decade or two back. However, recalling names becomes increasingly difficult. Am The Mind 17. Aging and Memory Illustrates how a common form of forgetting involving future intentions can be studied in the laboratory, and presents a new way of studying age differences via memory. From Searching for Memory Daniel Schacter 1996 If you retain the juicy tidbit but forget how you learned about it, you are liable to inadvertently spill your friend's secret. My colleagues and I made up various juicy tidbits of gossip and told old and young people that some tidbits were secrets that should not be disclosed, whereas others were common knowledge. Older adults had more difficulty than younger adults remembering which tidbits were secrets and which were not. This finding does not necessarily mean that you should never trust your grandmother with a secret, but you should probably handle such matters with care.17 Because forgetting the source of a memory opens the door to illusory recollections, older adults are especially vulnerable to certain types of memory distortions. Recall the false fame illusion I considered earlier in the book. When people are exposed in the laboratory to a made up, non-famous name such as Sebastian Weisdorf, and later fail consciously to recollect having been exposed to this name, they sometimes believe that Sebastian Weisdorf is the name of a famous person. 158 Module 158

Aging and Memory Recognition memory does not decline with age, and material that is meaningful is recalled better than meaningless material. Older people have better recall early in the day. When trying to remember meaningless info older people make more errors. Ever get tired of grandpa Joe’s stories? From Searching for Memory Daniel Schacter 1996 Recent research has confirmed what anyone who had listened carefully to my Grandpa Ben would have predicted. When older and younger adults were asked to tell some personal stories from anytime in their pasts, raters who read the narratives judged the elderly's stories to be of higher quality more engaging and dramatic than those of the young. In another similar study, the elderly told more complexly organized stories than did the young. When old and young adults had to retell an unfamiliar story that they had just heard for the first time, however, elderly adults recalled less of the story, told it less cohesively, and made more errors in retelling it than did the young. As long as they can tell the familiar stories that they have told many times before, older adults seem to do a better job of it than younger adults. But when they are required to tell a new story, the quality of the retelling is undermined by the sorts of explicit memory problems that I outlined earlier in the chapter.39 Why does grandpa always tell the same stories? David Myers 159 Module 159

Aging and Intelligence
Fluid intelligence: ability to reason speedily, declines with age Crystalline intelligence: accumulated knowledge and skills, increases. We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly. A normally functioning 65-year-old who cannot solve abstract logic puzzles as quickly as he did when he was younger is experiencing a (AP99) (A) Phenomenon that is uncommon for people of his age (B) Phenomenon predicted by Erik Erikson as part of the eight stages of psycho-social development (C) Decrease in his crystallized intelligence (D) Decrease in his fluid intelligence (E) Difficulty with concrete operational thinking 160 Module 160

The great secret of adulthood
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Aging and Intelligence
Many cognitive abilities decline with age. Vocabulary and general knowledge increase with age. Intelligence steady from 20-74, drops off after 85. Mathematicians and scientists most creative in their 20’s & 30’s Literature, History and philosophy produce best work in 40’s and 50’s Poets peak earlier than prose authors. AM The Mind 19. Understanding Alzheimer's Disease Provides a clear demonstration of how the advent of new technologies has aided research into the etiology of disease. 162 Module 162

Social Development Many differences between the young and old are not simply based on physical and cognitive abilities, but are based on life events & experience associated with family, relationships, and work. 163 Module 163

Adulthood’s Ages and Stages
Preview Question 11: Is the journey from early adulthood to death marked by stages that serve as developmental milestones? Psychologists doubt that adults pass through an orderly sequence of age-bound stages. Divorce most common in 20’s. The text emphasizes chance encounters affect our lives. Only 50% of twins really liked the other twins spouse, only 5% said they could have fallen for the other twin’s partner Mid-life crises at 40 are less likely to occur than crises triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage). Neuroticism scores, 10,000 subjects (McCrae & Costa, 1996). 164 Module 164

Adulthood’s Commitments
Love and work are defining themes in adult life. “A healthy adult is one who can love and work” Freud Preview Question 12: What do psychologists view as adulthood’s two primary commitments? Intimacy, generativity dominate adulthood. “A healthy adult is one who can love and work” Freud Evolutionary psychologists believe that commitment has survival value. Parents that stay together are likely to leave a viable future generation. Marriages most likely to last: Marry after 20 - Well educated - Did not Cohabit US divorce rate 50% World wide 9/10 people marry 40% married report very happy 23% unmarried report very happy Neighborhoods w/high marriage rates have lower rates of social pathologies, less crime, less delinquency, and fewer emotional disorders among children. JLP/ Jose Pelaez/ zefa/ Corbis 165 Module 165

So you are going to major in…..?
Happiness stems from working in a job that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment. Alienated hostile adolescents tend to have less satisfying work experiences that undermine achieving a positive transition into the working world (Roberts 2003) Most college graduates do not work in their degree field. You will work hard to get into a good school, and study hard in college so that you can work outside your degree field. 166 Module 166

Well-Being Across the Life Span
Well-being and people’s feelings of satisfaction are stable across the life span. Most common answer for done differently… “taken my education more seriously and worked harder at it” (Kinnie & Metha 1989) Focus less on mistakes than on things that they failed to do. (Gilovich & Medvec 1995) Positive feelings tend to grow and negative ones subside. Active psych 1 Development: life span timeline 167 Module 167

Life Expectancy (2006) 77.6 White males 74.4 White females 79.8
Lets take a look at why women might live longer. Life expectancy at birth increased from 49% in 1950 to 67% in 2004 and to 80% in developed countries. Women outlive men and outnumber them at most ages. OBJECTIVE 26 Compare life expectancy in the mid-twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, and discuss changes in sensory abilities and health (including frequency of dementia) in older adults. Whole Death Catalog Harold Schechter For the New England Puritans, death was an omnipresent reality. Their median life expectancy was thirty-three, and the mortality rate among children was so high that, according to historian David Stannard, when a young couple in seventeenth-century Massachusetts got married, they "did so with the knowledge and expectation that in all probability two or three of the children they might have would die before the age of ten.“ Back in ancient Rome, for example, the average man could expect to live only into his late twenties (less if he was a gladiator). By 1800, the life expectancy for the average person in the more advanced societies of the West had sky- rocketed all the way up to thirty-five. A hundred years later, it had climbed to nearly fifty in the United States, England, and Sweden. Nowadays, the average American can expect to live into his or her late seventies. 168 Module 168

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Death and Dying Grief is more severe if death occurs unexpectedly.
People who view their lives with a sense of integrity (in Erikson’s terms) see life as meaningful and worthwhile. The “normal” range of reactions or grief stages after the death of a loved one varies widely. Over 75 fastest growing segment of population, 25x larger today than 100 years ago. (Bernstein p 510) Expected late in live deaths accompanied by short lived grief More grief if death is unexpected & early in life. Expressing strong grief does not purge grief more quickly (Bonnano 1999) Support groups of little value, no better than private grief. No predictable stages of grief (Nolen-Hoeksema 1999) Active Psych 4 #11 aging and memory Alzheimers Quirkology Richard Wiseman One of Phillips's largest studies investigated whether date of birth influenced date of death.36 Analyzing almost 3 million California death certificates between 1969 and 1990, Phillips reported that a woman is more likely to die during the week after her birthday than at any other time of the year. In contrast, a man is more likely to die during the week before his birthday. Phillips argued that this may be because women look forward to birthdays as times of celebration, whereas men are more likely to use birthdays to take stock of their lives; in doing so, they realize how little they have achieved in life, become stressed, and therefore increase their chances of dying. Chris Steele-Perkins/ Magnum Photos 178 Module 178

EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Edition in Modules) David Myers
PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2008 179 Module 179

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