1. Core 2 Nutrition, recovery strategies and performance

2. How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance? Nutrition is a major influencing factor on an athlete’s performance, and on their successful recovery. If the body can draw on the nutrients it requires when it requires them, an athlete has a significantly higher chance of optimal performance and recovery.

3. When we understand the nutrients that are needed for better performance before, during and after competition, we are able to adjust an athlete’s eating plan for their maximum benefit. The intake of supplements has become increasingly popular to help maintain the essential nutrients in the body, but research shows that a good, tailored eating plan can eliminate the need for most supplements. Coaches and athletes must also be aware of effective recovery techniques and adopt them as a critical component of their planning and programming. By using these strategies, athletes can accelerate their training and achieve optimal performance.

4. Nutritional considerations An athlete’s body must be fuelled appropriately if the athlete is to maintain optimal training regimes and give themselves the opportunity to compete at their best. This ‘fuel’ will generally involve a diet composed of a variety of foods.

5. Energy intake –A person’s energy expenditure will also influence the number of kilojoules they need to consume— elite athletes who train more than five hours a day require more fuel than sedentary people. –Research indicates that athletes should eat frequently throughout the day. This helps to stabilise blood sugar levels, and to maintain lower levels of body fat and higher muscle mass.

6. Athletes who train at least 20 hours a week need 7 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight, while a recreational athlete training 3–5 hours per week needs 4–5 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight. Carbohydrates

7. Training commitments only lead to a small increase in protein requirements for most athletes—that is, 1 gram per kilogram of body weight compared to 0.8 grams for a sedentary person— unless they are endurance or strength athletes in a heavy phase of training, and therefore need additional protein (1.4–1.7 grams per kilogram of body weight) for muscle growth and repair. Protein

8. Controlling fatigue Athletes need to examine the type of fatigue that will impact their training and performance, and develop nutritional Strategies that will delay or reduce the onset of: glycogen depletion low blood sugar levels low blood sodium levels dehydration gastrointestinal upset. The nutritional routine for any athlete will encompass what should be consumed before, during and after their performance. Athletes need to develop a competition nutritional plan for all major events, and tested the strategies - before, during and after their event.

10. Pre performance Fuelling up –A major cause of fatigue and decline in performance is the depletion of fuels (in particular the glycogen stores in muscles). –One of the main aims of pre-performance nutrition is ‘fuelling up’ and supplying enough carbohydrates to maximise the body’s glycogen stores in the final 24–36 hours before an event

11. Carbohydrate loading The duration of the event will also influence the nutrition plan. If the event is completed under an hour (or is a team sport), an athlete will look at increasing glycogen stores over the final 24–36 hours before the event.

12. This may be achieved by consuming 7– 12 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body mass, and reducing training— called ‘tapering’—to ensure the athlete does not expend as much glycogen as they normally would in the days before competition. For example, an athlete weighing 60 kilograms would consume 420–720 grams of carbohydrate on the day before the event.

13. If the event is over 90 minutes, the athlete can also try carbohydrate loading over 2–4 days. Research suggests that carbohydrate loading 36–72 hours before an event can increase performance over a set distance by 2–3 per cent. This is achieved because an additional 50–100 per cent of glycogen can be stored in the muscle and be available for energy during the race..

14. To achieve this increase in glycogen stores the athlete must also be on a taper—if they continue to train at the same volume and intensity, their carbohydrate loading will be compromised. Athletes in events such as road cycling, marathon running, and endurance swimming would all benefit from carbohydrate loading

15. Carbohydrate loading does not mean ‘pigging out’ on any foods. It is best to reduce high-fat foods and foods rich in fibre to maximise carbohydrate intake. The eating plan contains compact sources of carbohydrates such as sports drinks, cordial, soft drink, jam and honey, and the meals are small and frequent. This also assists an athlete in achieving a high carbohydrate intake. This diet is suitable for a 70-kilogram athlete aiming to carbohydrate load

16. Questions 1.Would all athletes benefit from carbohydrate loading before competition? Explain 2.Explain how glycogen depletion leads to fatigue.

17. The pre-event meal The final hours prior to competition are also important, and an athlete’s nutritional plan at this time can play a vital role in performance. This is an opportunity for athletes to: top up glycogen stores (both liver and muscle) make sure they are well hydrated ward off feelings of hunger without causing gastrointestinal discomfort consume foods that give them a psychological edge.

18. Research indicates that eating a high- carbohydrate meal (2.5 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight) about 3 hours before exercising can increase muscle glycogen concentration by 11–17 per cent. The more fat, fibre and protein in the meal, however, the more time it will take to digest, and the higher the likelihood that it will cause stomach upsets. This is also the case for the volume of food consumed.

19. The timing of the pre performance meal will depend on the competition schedule and individual tolerance. It is generally consumed 3–4 hours before competition, but this is not always practical. If the competition commences at 9 am, an athlete will not want to eat at 5 am. They may adjust their pre-event meal to 2 hours before competition, and have a cereal bar, yoghurt, smoothie or sports drink that can be easily digested.

20. Some athletes will be able to have a light breakfast (cereal, toast, juice) but this will depend on the individual. Athletes will need to determine how much and what type of food they can stomach prior to competition. Athletes competing in sports that involve running are often more sensitive to food at this time. Liquid meals (smoothies, juices, shakes) or sports bars can be a good alternative for these athletes, as well as those who are too nervous to eat.

21. Athletes need to eat something close to competition (within one hour), a sports drink, sports bar, jelly lollies or a carbohydrate gel might be ideal. For most athletes, consuming carbohydrates during this time will not have a negative effect on performance, but a small number of athletes do react with a drop in blood glucose at the start of exercise, and feelings of fatigue.

22. Glycaemic Index (GI) This is a ranking of carbohydrates in foods, in relation to their effect on blood glucose (sugar) levels within 2 hours of consuming 50 grams of that food. (The benchmark used to compare foods is white bread, which has been given an arbitrary GI of 100.) Foods with a low GI(e.g. peanuts, low-fat yoghurt) cause a slow release of glucose into the blood, whereas high-GI foods (e.g. potatoes, fruit bars) cause a quick but brief rise in blood glucose.

23. There is no scientific evidence that indicates the consumption of low-GI foods in the pre-event meal will enhance performance. In addition, some low GI foods (e.g. porridge) can cause stomach distress. Instead, athletes attempting to maintain fuel levels will consume a sports drink during the event

24. Hydration Hydration is the process of taking sufficient fluid into the body. It is important that athletes start their competition in a well-hydrated state, as dehydration leads to a decrease in blood volume and a drop in performance. Starting the competition in a slightly dehydrated state will have an adverse effect on heart rate, stroke volume and temperature regulation

25. Athletes can generally tolerate 300–500 millilitres of fluid (that is, 5 millilitres per kilogram of body weight) before exercise. For events of less than 60 minutes, water is adequate, but athletes competing in longer events may benefit from sports drinks. A high fluid intake over several days before competition will assist an athlete in reaching a hydrated state.

27. During performance During an event, it is important for athletes to refuel and rehydrate. An athlete’s fuel and fluid needs while competing will be affected by: –the duration and intensity of the activity –the environmental conditions –the athlete’s starting glycogen and hydration status –the athlete’s body size and metabolism.

28. Refuelling –Consuming carbohydrates during exercise enhances performance, possibly by sparing glycogen stores and preventing low blood sugar levels. –athletes attempt to consume 30–60 grams of carbohydrate per hour during their performance, but this will depend on their tolerance level, their needs, and the opportunities within their sport. –Examples include bananas, sports bars and carbohydrate gels. –Sports drinks, with 6–8 per cent carbohydrate and 10–25 millimoles per litre (mmol/L) of sodium, can be effective exercise.

29. Rehydration –To effectively rehydrate during a sporting event or exercise, an athlete should –be aware of how much fluid they lose under various conditions. –This can be monitored by calculating the difference between their body weight before an event or exercise session with their weight after the session – this can be expressed as a percentage of body weight:

30. Becoming dehydrated during competition increases an athlete’s heart rate and core temperature, and decreased blood volume, so dehydrated athletes will feel more fatigued and are likely to slow down during competition. A runner who would usually complete a 10- kilometre run in 35 minutes when in a hydrated state would slow to almost 38 minutes when dehydrated by 4 per cent body weight—that’s an 8 per cent decrease in performance.

32. Post performance Post-performance nutrition is a major component of any athlete’s recovery routine. The training or competition situation will influence the amount of refuelling, rehydration and muscle tissue repair needed to boost adaptations and get their body ready for the next event.

33. Refuelling and muscle rebuilding An athlete can kickstart the glycogen replenishment and muscle rebuilding process immediately following competition. This involves having at least 1 gram of high- GI food per kilogram of body weight, with 10– 20 grams of protein, within 30 minutes of glycogen-depleting exercise. This initial snack will contribute to a total intake of 6–10 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight over the next 24 hours. Athletes expending large amounts of energy will have more latitude in choice of food. Some athletes will choose lollies as their recovery food but these should be supplemented with something else as they do not provide fluid, protein or other nutrients.

34. Rehydration Weighing athletes before and after exercise will give some indication of their fluid deficit, and approximate how much they need to replace. A good guide is that an athlete needs to take in 1.5 litres of fluid for every 1 kilogram of body weight lost A sports drink is recommended as the sodium and potassium stimulates thirst, whereas when consuming plain water the body thinks it is over hydrated.

35. Supplementation

36. Vitamins/minerals Regular, strenuous exercise can create the need for increased dietary intake of some vitamins and minerals. These increased levels of vitamins and minerals can be achieved through correct food choices, so ordinarily supplements are not required.

37. Vitamins The human body needs only small amounts of vitamins to sustain our bodily functions and perform well. Vitamins assist the body to use energy nutrients, but do not contain or provide energy themselves. Since the body only uses the vitamins that it needs and cannot store the excess, the benefits of vitamin supplements seems negligible.

38. In the case of fat-soluble vitamins, supplements can even be dangerous. Vitamins A and D can accumulate in the body, and excessive quantities can result in joint pain, headaches, nausea, fatigue and loss of appetite.

39. Minerals The main mineral areas to consider are calcium and iron, as many athletes tend to be deficient in these, resulting in poor performance. Females are also more likely to be calcium- or iron-deficient.

40. Calcium –Calcium is a key mineral in healthy bones and teeth. –The quality of bone tissue is built up during our younger years and starts to gradually deteriorate from our mid-20s. –A more rapid deterioration occurs later in life, which may result in osteoporosis. Key sources of calcium include dairy products, fish such as salmon, and green leafy vegetables.

41. Iron –Haemoglobin is a protein in our red blood cells that collects and transports oxygen to where the body needs it. –Low levels of haemoglobin can dramatically affect performance, since the muscles are deprived of oxygen which is needed for energy production. –This can result in symptoms of fatigue and lack of energy. –Iron is found in haemoglobin, and so is very important in maintaining peak performance. High amounts are found naturally in lean meat and green leafy vegetables, including spinach and grains. Many individuals do not consume enough iron as part of their daily diets, so supplements are very common.

42. –Iron is found in haemoglobin, and so is very important in maintaining peak performance. –High amounts are found naturally in lean meat and green leafy vegetables, including spinach and grains.

43. Protein Protein is important for its structural (building and repairing muscle tissue) and functional (immune system) role, as well as for its role as an energy source. Strength and endurance athletes need more protein than the sedentary person.

44. Protein supplements Food is the best source of protein, and most athletes do not need expensive protein supplements. Research indicates that there is no advantage in taking protein supplements over everyday protein-rich foods. Protein products tend to have large amounts of protein and little else of nutritional value.

45. Lack of protein, however, does have a detrimental effect on performance— slow recovery, loss of muscle and reduced immune function. Liquid meals and protein powders (containing protein and carbohydrates) are low-bulk and convenient, and so may assist athletes who: have difficulty in meeting daily protein requirements because of poor or restricted diet are vegetarian and want more variety don’t feel like eating a steak directly after weight training have trouble getting their protein requirements for the day from natural sources (e.g. may be fussy eaters).

46. Caffeine Caffeine is a drug that is socially accepted and widely used around the world. Since it has been taken off the World Anti- Doping Agency’s banned substances list, many athletes are starting to experiment with its effects on their performance. Caffeine can be found in teas, coffee, cola, chocolate and energy drinks, ranging from about 5 to 200 milligrams in each serve.

47. Effects of caffeine –For some individual athletes, it has been proven to have a positive effect in some circumstances, such as: alterations to the central nervous system to amend perceptions of fatigue effects on the cardiac muscle stimulation and release of adrenaline mobilisation of fats from the adipose tissue and the muscle cell changes to muscle contractions. –These effects result in an enhanced performance during short-duration, high- intensity events; prolonged high-intensity events; and endurance events.

48. Large doses of caffeine may result in: –over arousal, which inhibits good sleep patterns and jeopardises recovery –an increased heart rate –an impairment of fine motor control, which can affect an athlete’s performance depending on the sport. The most beneficial time to ingest caffeine is 1 hour before an event, as research shows increased performance for up to 6 hours after intake.

49. Creatine products Creatine supplements have been gaining popularity for the last 15 years. Many scientific studies also support the positive effects of creatine supplements on an athlete’s performance. Creatine is a muscle fuel, derived from amino acids and stored in skeletal muscle.

50. Most important is creatine’s role as a source of phosphate to regenerate ATP Creatine supplements can benefit athletes in sports relying on their ATP/PC energy system, e.g. short sprints. Creatine can benefit athletes who are undergoing resistance training to increase body mass, those who perform short sprint events, or athletes competing in intermittent intense activities, such as football and tennis.

51. Recovery strategies Recovery strategies are approaches used by athletes to manage fatigue between one training session or event and the next one. By using appropriate recovery strategies, athletes can achieve accelerated training and optimal performance.

52. Recovery strategies are administered to accelerate recovery from fatigue and enhance either training adaptations or an athlete’s readiness for competition. Identifying the type of fatigue will assist coaches in implementing the most effective recovery strategies for their athletes so that they can start their session or competition in a non fatigued state. This would be another use of the specificity principle - specific recovery strategies can meet the needs of specific training demands.

53. Before selecting and implementing recovery routines coaches need to consider the following factors: age of the athlete—older athletes often take longer to recover demands of the sport or training session and possible causes of fatigue environmental conditions—climate (hot, cool, humid); time zone differences recovery time before the next event or training session access to facilities (e.g. ice bath, spa, pool, massage) available time for recovery for all team members.

55. Physiological strategies Cool down (active recovery) –Active recovery, or the traditional ‘cool- down’, involves any mode of low-intensity exercise. –The most commonly used cool-down involves a combination of jogging, walking and stretching, although any cardio exercise (e.g. cycling or swimming) can be used.

56. The suggested benefits of a cool-down, when compared to a passive recovery (i.e. doing nothing) include: –a decrease in blood lactate –decreased likelihood of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) –better heat dissipation after exercise –reducing muscle soreness after eccentric exercise

57. Rehydration Stretching Compression garments –decrease swelling and muscle soreness –increase venous return and blood flow (increasing oxygen to muscles) –improve endurance, power and temperature regulation –increase force production.

58. Hydrotherapy Cold-water immersion (CWI), hot-water immersion (spas), contrast water therapy (CWT), and pool and beach recovery sessions are examples of hydrotherapy strategies used by athletes.

59. Cold-water immersion (CWI) –Applying cold water and ice are common strategies for treating acute soft tissue injuries –Examples include the use of baths, ice baths, and bins filled with water and ice to a depth where the athlete is submerged at least to their waist. –The water temperature and duration of CWI varies depending on the facility and time available, and the needs of the athlete.

60. Benefits of CWI include: –decreased temperature (core, muscle and skin) –reduced soreness and swelling –decreased perception of pain and discomfort –increased perception of recovery.

61. Contrast water therapy (CWT) –Contrast water therapy involves alternating 60- second periods in cold water (10–15°C) with 60- second periods in hot water (38°C) for 3–7 cycles –This recovery strategy is not recommended if the athlete has an illness, open wound or acute injury. –Suggested benefits of CWT include: increased blood flow increased lactate clearance decreased swelling, stiffness and pain decreased muscle soreness and damage stimulated central nervous system greater sense of wellbeing.

62. Hot-water immersion (HWI) –An example of hot-water immersion is the use of spas. –This generally involves the athlete immersing themselves in water with a temperature of 38°C for a maximum of 15 minutes. –This is not recommended for athletes with an injury or in hot, humid environments. Benefits include increased blood flow, and reduced stiffness and muscle spasms.

63. Pool/beach sessions –Pool recovery sessions are frequently used by team sport athletes and can be scheduled immediately after competition or the following morning. –These sessions generally include light exercise (walking, jogging, swimming, kicking and stretching) for 10–30 minutes. Suggested benefits include reduced muscle soreness and stiffness following contact sport or eccentric exercise.

64. Tissue damage strategies –Cryotherapy - generally refers to the use of ice or cold for therapy or recovery. Psychological strategies Relaxation Sleep A lack of sleep has a number of implications for athletes: –reduced focus and decision-making ability in skill sports –reduced memory, communication skills and learning –increased likelihood of overtraining –decrease in physical performance (after 3 days of sleep deprivation).