1. Liquid State Liquid is one of the four fundamental states of matter and is the only state with a definite volume but no fixed shape. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms and molecules, held together by intramolecular bonds.

2. Vapour Pressure The average energy of the particles in a liquid is governed by the temperature. The higher the temperature, the higher the average energy. But within that average, some particles have energies higher than the average, and others have energies lower than the average. Some of the more energetic particles on the surface of the liquid can be moving fast enough to escape from the attractive forces holding the liquid together. They evaporate.

3. Vapour Pressure Evaporation only takes place on the surface of the liquid.

4. Vapour Pressure If a liquid is placed in a closed container, there is constant evaporation from the surface. Particles continue to break away from the surface of the liquid and are trapped in the space above the liquid.

5. As the gaseous particles bounce around, some of them will hit the surface of the liquid again, and be trapped there. There will rapidly be an equilibrium set up in which the number of particles leaving the surface is exactly balanced by the number rejoining it. Vapour Pressure

6. In this equilibrium, there will be a fixed number of the gaseous particles in the space above the liquid. When these particles hit the walls of the container, they exert a pressure. This pressure is called the saturated vapour pressure (also known as saturation vapour pressure) of the liquid. Vapour Pressure

7. Vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature. As temperature increases, the amount of vapor generated by a liquid in a closed container increases. This occurs because as the liquid gains kinetic energy, the molecules can overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction that are prevalent in the liquid phase.

8. Vapour Pressure When a liquid is heated in an open vessel, the liquid vapourises from the surface. At the temperature at which vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the external pressure, vapourisation can occur throughout the bulk of the liquid and vapours expand freely into the surroundings. The condition of free vapourisation throughout the liquid is called boiling.

9. The temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid is equal to the external pressure is called boiling temperature at that pressure. Vapour Pressure

10. If pressure is 1 bar then the boiling point is called standard boiling point of the liquid. Vapour Pressure The normal boiling point of water is 100 °C (373 K), its standard boiling point is 99.6 °C (372.6 K). At 1 atm pressure boiling temperature is called normal boiling point.

11. Vapour Pressure Vapour Pressure Vs Temperature Curve of Liquids

12. Vapour Pressure Boiling point changes with change in pressure.

13. Vapour Pressure Boiling point decreases with decrease in pressure. At high altitudes atmospheric pressure is low. Therefore liquids at high altitudes boil at lower temperatures in comparison to that at sea level. Since water boils at low temperature on hills, the pressure cooker is used for cooking food.

14. Vapour Pressure In hospitals surgical instruments are sterilized in autoclaves in which boiling point of water is increased by increasing the pressure above the atmospheric pressure by using a weight covering the vent. Boiling point increases with increase in pressure.

15. Viscosity Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow which arises due to the internal friction between layers of fluid as they slip past one another while liquid flows.

16. Viscosity When a liquid flows over a fixed surface, the layer of molecules in the immediate contact of surface is stationary. The velocity of upper layers increases as the distance of layers from the fixed layer increases. This type of flow in which there is a regular gradation of velocity in passing from one layer to the next is called laminar flow.

17. Viscosity F ∝ A (A is the area of contact) If the velocity of the layer at a distance dz is changed by a value du then velocity gradient is given by the amount du/dz. A force is required to maintain the flow of layers. This force is proportional to the area of contact of layers and velocity gradient i.e. F ∝ du/dz (du /dz is velocity gradient; the change in velocity with distance) F ∝ A.du/dz ⇒ F = η A.du/dz ⇒ F = η A.du/dz ‘ η ’ is proportionality constant and is called coefficient of viscosity.

18. Viscosity Coefficient of viscosity is the force when velocity gradient is unity and the area of contact is unit area. Thus ‘ η ’ is measure of viscosity. SI unit of viscosity coefficient is 1 newton second per square metre (N s m -2 ) or pascal second. In cgs system the unit of coefficient of viscosity is poise. 1 poise = 1 g cm -1 s -1 = 10 -1 kg m -1 s -1

19. Viscosity Viscosity of liquids decreases with rise in temperature. At high temperature molecules have high kinetic energy and can overcome the intermolecular forces to slip past one another between the layers.