1. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

2. The Female Reproductive System
Uterus
A muscular chamber about the size and shape of a pear.
Located in a woman's abdomen, is a hollow, elastic reproductive organ, where a baby develops during pregnancy.

3. Female anatomy
The uterus - is a major female hormone- responsive reproductive sex organ
Within the uterus  fetus develops during gestation.
The term uterus =womb.
One end, the cervix, opens into the vagina; the other is connected on both sides to the Fallopian tubes.

4. Sperm Sperm is the male reproductive cell Chief Characteristics:
Tightly packed tip (acrosome) that contains 23 chromosomes that carry genetic information
Short neck region
Trail to propel it in its search for the ovum
Microscopic
Fact:
Remains capable of fertilizing egg for hours after ejaculation
Of 200 million sperm that enter the vagina, only about 200 survive the journey to the fallopian tubes, where fertilization occurs
Males, at birth, have in their testes those cells that will eventually produce sperm
One of the smallest cells in the male body

5. Ovum (Egg) The ovum is the female reproductive cell
Chief Characteristics:
Round
.01 mm in diameter
Consistency of stiff jelly
Contributes 23 chromosomes
Fact:
Females already have 1-2 million primal eggs at birth
Eggs usually fertilized about 12 hours after discharged from the ovary or they die within hours
Barely visible to the naked eye

6. ovulation When a young woman reaches puberty, she begins to ovulate
a process in which a mature egg cell (also called an ovum), ready for fertilization by a sperm cell, is released from one of the ovaries

7. Her body prepares for a potential pregnancy every cycle, whether or not she want to actually conceive.
Under the influence of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), about 15 to 20 eggs start to mature in each ovary.
Although it averages about two weeks, the process to release an egg can take anywhere from about eight days to a month or longer to complete.

8. menstrual cycle Ovulation occurs 14 days before the next menstruation.
As the average menstrual cycle lasts 28 days (starting with the first day of one period and ending with the first day of the next menstrual period), most women ovulate on day 14.

9. A menstrual cycle can vary between 21 to 38 days.
A woman is generally most fertile (able to become pregnant) a few days before, during, and after ovulation.
The corpus luteum remains behind on the interior ovarian wall, and starts releasing progesterone.
Progesterone quickly stops the release of all other eggs until the next cycle. The corpus luteum has a finite lifespan, of about 12 to 16 days.

10. Menstruation
If the egg does not become fertilized as it travels down the fallopian tube on its way to the uterus, the endometrium (lining of the uterus) is shed and passes through the vagina (the passageway through which fluid passes out of the body during menstrual periods; also called the birth canal), a process called menstruation.

11. Pregnancy
If the egg is fertilized by a sperm cell as it travels down the fallopian tube, then pregnancy occurs, it becomes attached to the lining of the uterus

12. Sperms can live up to five days in fertile quality cervical fluid
In order for conception to occur, though, there must be three factors present:
the egg,
the sperm
a medium in which the sperm can travel to reach the fallopian tubes.
Women produce cervical fluid under the influence of increasing levels of estrogen in the first part of the cycle.
Sperms can live up to five days in fertile quality cervical fluid

13. 3 Stages in prenatal development:
Germinal stage
Embryonic stage
Fetal stage
Principles
Cephalocaudal principle
Proximodistal principle

14. First Stage: Germinal
Starts at conception (fertilization) until implantation  14 days.
Conception process  When the sperms meets the egg (ovum) in the fallopian tube  travel down into the uterus where it implants in the uterine lining and begin to grow (implantation).

15. Conception
Conception occurs when the sperm meets and penetrates the ovum, or egg
Also known as fertilization
sperm
ovum

16. Normally, only one sperms will succeed penetrating through the ovum wall.

17. When one sperms succeeded penetrating the ovum wall, a protective lining will form around it  preventing other sperms to enter/penetrate.
The combination of ovum & sperms  form zygote (with one nucleus).
Zygote will later develop into blastosist  a complex organism with millions of cells  with various functions.

18. Germinal stage (fertilization to 2 weeks)
Rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation, and implantation
Mitosis
Blastocyst
Embryonic disk
Ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm
Trophoblast
Placenta & umbilical cord
Amniotic sac & chorion

20. Fertilization: the sperm and egg join in the fallopian tube to form a unique human being.
a fertilized egg, only thirty hours after conception.

21. Zygotic Period (Conception - 1st Week)
A zygote is a fertilized egg with 46 chromosomes
Genetic potential determined at this time
Egg is 2.5 mm in diameter at end of 1st week
Mitosis, a process of cell division, occurs during this period

22. Early development of a human embryo

23. Early development of a human embryo

25. Embrio : blastosis burrows into the uterine lining

26. As soon as the fertilized egg burrows into the lining, it starts releasing a pregnancy hormone, HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin) which sends a message back to the corpus luteum left behind on the ovarian wall.
HCG signals the corpus luteum to remain alive beyond its usual maximum of 16 days and continuing to release progesterone long enough to sustain the nourishing lining.
After several months, the placenta takes over, not only maintaining the endometrium, but providing all the oxygen and nutrients the fetus needs to thrive.

27. Cells Division There are two type of cell division Mitosis and meiosis
Reproductive cells divide through meiosis process, while all other body cells divide through the mitosis process

28. Cells Division
Mitosis is cell division that results in the duplication of cells; the daughter cells genetic copies of the parent cell. This cell multiplication allows for replacement of old cells, tissue repair, growth and development.
Mitosis
The creation of new cells through duplication of chromosomes & divisions of cells  cells duplicates (From 1 24  16 32, etc)
Cells developed into organs, brain, heart etc.
Growth & Development
You grew from a zygote, or fertilized egg (the fusion of two cells: an egg and a sperm) into an organism with trillions of specialized cells.
Mitosis is the process that enabled you to grow and develop after that fateful meeting of ovum and sperm became ‘you’.
Cell Replacement
Cells must divide in order for an organism to grow and develop, but cell division is also required for maintenance, cell turnover and replacement.

29. Meiosis is Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation
In sexually reproducing organisms, some cells are able to divide by another method called meiosis.
Meiosis is a complex process by which gametes form; involves duplication and division of reproductive cells and their chromosomes.
The number of chromosomes in cells divide into two’s, and each set of cell will receive 1 from each sets of chromosomes  makes up 23 sets.
This type of cell division results in the production of gametes (eggs or sperm).
Meiosis is much more complex than mitosis involves the duplication and subsequent division of chromosomes, meiosis involves two divisions of genetic material. As is the case in mitosis, in meiosis the cell duplicates its chromosome number prior to beginning cellular division. Then nuclear division, the sorting out of the genetic material, begins, and unfolds over the course of 2 cellular divisions that result in 4 gametes.

30. Meiosis is Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation
Gametes & Gonads
Gametes are haploid (1n) with half the number of chromosomes than the progenitor cell that they arose from. These haploid sex cells arise in specialized reproductive tissue called the gonads. Ovaries (female gonads) and testes (male gonads) are the sites of meiosis.
Fertilization & Development
Sexual reproduction results in the merging of sperm and egg at fertilization, and brings the chromosome count back to the 2n diploid number necessary for a zygote to have complete genetic information; 2 sets of genetic instructions in 23 pairs of chromosomes.
As cells divide, the zygote develops and grows into an embryo, fetus and beyond. These 23 pairs of chromosomes are duplicated with every cell division, and are the genetic material inside nearly every cell of the body.

31. What's the Difference between Mitosis & Meiosis
Mitosis is how the cells of our body make more cells for growth, development and repair.
Meiosis is how our body makes sex cells, or gametes (eggs or sperm).

32. Mechanisms of Heredity
The Genetic Code
Basis of heredity is a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains all the inherited material passed from biological parents to children
Every cell except the sex cells has 23 pairs of chromosomes--46 in all
Genetic action that triggers growth of body and brain is often regulated by hormones

33. Mechanisms of heredity
The genetic code
DNA and chromosomes
Human genome
23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell (46 total) – except sex cells
Meiosis – division in sex cells (23 single chromosomes)
Mitosis – division in body cells

34. Genetic Code
Genetic information are kept in chromosomes  ie. A long & complex set of DNA molecules.
Genes is a segment of DNA molecules  contains instructions for making protein.
Human being is said to have 100 trillions of cells in the body  with specific functions; and is distributed through 46 chromosomes, ie. 23 from father & 23 from mother.

35. Genetic Foundation Genotype (genetic makeup)
Phenotype (observable characteristics)

36. Hereditary composition of the zygote

37. What determines sex? Autosomes – chromosome pairs 1- 22
Sex chromosomes – 23rd pair of chromosomes
XX = female
Xy = males

38. Determination of a child’s sex

39. What Determines Sex?
Sex chromosomes are either X chromosomes or Y chromosomes
When an ovum (X) is fertilized by an X- carrying sperm, the zygote formed is XX, a female
When an ovum (X) is fertilized by a Y- carrying sperm, the resulting zygote is XY, a male

40. Choromosomes Boy or girl? Chromosomes determine sex :
23 pairs of sex chromosomes
Female : XX pairs of sex chromosomes
Male : XY pairs of sex chromosomes
FATHER=XY MOTHER=XX
XY (male) XX (female)

41. Patterns of Genetic Transmission
When an offspring receives two contradictory traits, only one of them, the dominant one shows itself
The expression of a recessive trait, occurs only when a person receives the recessive traits from both parents

42. Dominant and recessive inheritance

43. What Causes Multiple Births?
Dizygotic (two-egg) twins=fraternal twins
Monozygotic (one-egg) twins=identical twins
The rise in multiple births is due in part to a trend toward delayed childbearing
Infertility
Inability to conceive a baby after 12 to 18 months of trying

44. Genetic and Chromosomal Abnormalities
Some defects are due to abnormalities in genes or chromosomes, which may result from mutations
Many disorders arise when an inherited predisposition interacts with an environmental factor, either before or after birth

45. Sex linked inheritance of a birth defect

46. Genetic Counseling and Testing
A chart can show chromosomal abnormalities and can indicate whether a person who appears normal might transmit genetic defects to a child

47. Multiple births Dizygotic and monozygotic twins
Increased incidence of multiple births in US
Why?
Delayed childrearing
Fertility drugs

48. Infertility: Alternative ways to parenthood
Inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying
Multiple causes
Too few sperm
Too few ova
Abnormal ova
Disease of the uterine lining
Deterioration in quality of ova
Blockage of the fallopian tubes

49. Assisted reproduction
Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination by a donor
In vitro fertilization
Ovum transfer
Surrogate motherhood
What are concerns raised by surrogate motherhood?

50. Nature and Nurture
Some Characteristics Influenced by Heredity and Environment
Adopted children's IQs are consistently closer to the IQs of their biological mothers than to those of their adoptive parents and siblings.
Monozygotic twins generally look alike; they are also more concordant than dizygotic twins in their risk for such medical disorders as hypertension (high blood pressure), heart disease, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis, peptic ulcers, and epilepsy
Heredity seems to exert a strong influence on general intelligence and also on specific abilities
A strong hereditary influence on schizophrenia and autism, among other disorders; found in families
The measured genetic influence increases with age. The family environment seems to have more influence on younger children, whereas adolescents are more apt to find their own niche by actively selecting environments compatible with their hereditary abilities and related interests.

51. 2nd Stage in prenatal development stage
Embryonic Stage

52. Embryonic stage (2 to 8 weeks)
Rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs
A critical period
Trimesters
Spontaneous abortion (miscarriage)
Stillborn

53. Phases in pregnancy: First trimester (week 1-12)
2nd Trimester (week )
3rd Trimester (week 25 & above)

54. Proses Persenyawaan Bapa (sperma) Ibu (Ovum)
½ sel (23 kromosom X or Y) ½ sel (23 kromosom X)
Persenyawaan
zigot
Embrio
Fetus
Baby

55. 2nd Stage: Embryonic Period (2nd Week - 2nd Month)
The phase after implantation.  after the development of zygote  and developing its blastosist.
Embryo composed of millions of cells with various functions (week 3-8)

56. 2nd Stage: Embryonic Period (2nd Week - 2nd Month)
The differentiation of embryonic cells into layers marks the beginning of the embryo, or embryonic period
Period when all body systems form
Highly sensitive for susceptibility of congenital malformations, or abnormal conditions with which an infant is born

57. Embryonic Period: End of the 1st Month
1/4 inch (6 mm) long
1 oz. Weight
Crescent-shaped with small limb buds on sides
Tail with tiny ridges
Rudimentary circulatory system is forming
Heart begins to beat
Growth acceleration

58. Embryonic Period:End of 2nd Month
1.5 inches long
Beginning of face, neck, fingers, toes develop
Limb buds lengthen
Muscles enlarge
Sex organs begin to form
Rapid brain development
Embryo is firmly planted on uterine wall and is receiving nourishment from placenta and umbilical cord

59. 7 weeks
Facial features are visible, including a mouth and tongue. The eyes have a retina and lens. The major muscle system is developed, and the unborn child practices moving. The child has its own blood type, distinct from the mother's. These blood cells are produced by the liver now instead of the yolk sac.

60. 3rd stage: Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth)
Embryo develops  fetus (baby in the uterus).
Cells that represents eyes, head, body, hands, legs  further develops  larger.
The period of consumption until baby is born  40 weeks (sometimes weeks).

61. Fetal stage
Increased detail of body parts and greatly enlarged body size
Finishing touches
Fetal behavior
Ultrasound

62. Early Fetal Period: 3rd - 6th Month
Period of the fetus begins around the 3rd month and continues until delivery
Movement first becomes apparent to mother at this time
No new anatomical features appear during this period, yet still critical time

63. Early Fetal Period: 3rd Month
Rapid growth, 3 inches long at end of 3rd month
Sexual differentiation continues
Teeth buds emerge
Stomach and kidneys begin to function
Vocal cords appear
Reflex actions felt: opens/closes mouth, clenches fist, sucks thumb

64. Early Fetal Period:4th Month
Most rapid growth rate (doubles in length to 6- 8 inches)
6 oz. Weight
Hands fully shaped
Bony tissue begins to form

65. Early Fetal Period:5th Month
Reaches 1/2 of birth length (8-10 inches)
Only 10% of birth weight (1/2 lb.)
Skin, hair, nails appear
Internal organs grow and assume proper anatomical positions
Pigmented hair on head & eyebrows appears

66. Early Fetal Period: 6th Month
13 inches long
1 lb. Weight
Eyelids reopen and are completed
Structurally complete but functionally immature

67. Later Fetal Period: 7th-9th Month/Birth
From the 7th month to birth, the fetus triples in weight
This is a period of filling out
Preparation for birth

68. Later Fetal Period:7th Month
A layer of adipose tissue begins to form under skin (serves as both insulator & food supplier)
Rapid 2-4 lb. Weight gain
14-16 inches long
Fetus is quiet for long periods of time
Brain more active and is increasing control over body systems

69. Later Fetal Period:8th Month
Fetus is more active (frequent changes in position)
Fatty deposits distributed
16-18 inches long
4-6 lbs.

70. Later Fetal Period:9th Month (Birth)
19-21 inches long
6-8 lbs.
Birth process is initiated by placenta and contraction of uterine muscles
Birth generally occurs after week 40 of gestation (normal is wks.)

71. Important parts in the uterus
Amniotic Sac
Placenta
Amniotic fluid
Umbilical cord

72. Environmental Influences (Teratogens)
Maternal factors
Teratogenic – capable of causing birth defects

73. Maternal factors (continued)
Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs
Medical drugs
Thalidomide
DES
Aspirin
Caffeine
Cocaine, heroin, or methadone

74. Maternal factors (continued)
Tobacco/Nicotine
Alcohol
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Fetal alcohol effects Sexually transmitted diseases and other maternal illnesses
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
Radiation
Environmental Polution
Maternal Diseases

75. Other Maternal factors
Exercise & Physical activity
Nutrition
Emotional Stress
Rh Incompartibility
Maternal age

76. Paternal factors Environmentally caused defects Cocaine use Age
Smoking

77. Monitoring prenatal development
Ultrasound
Sonogram
Sonoembriology
Amniocentesis
Chorionic villus sampling
Embryoscopy
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
Umbilical cord sampling (fetal blood sampling)
Maternal blood test

78. Prenatal care Why is prenatal care important? How can it be improved?
What is the relationship between prenatal care and low birthweight and premature births?
How can we tell whether a new baby is healthy and is developing normally?
What complications of childbirth can endanger newborn babies, and what can be done to increase the chances of a positive outcome?

79. The birth process Stages of childbirth Electronic fetal monitoring
First stage
Second stage
Third stage
Fourth stage
Electronic fetal monitoring

80. Stages of childbirth