1. Review: What’s the Object? What’s the Object? Motive? Motive? Circumstances? Circumstances?

2. “Double Effect” …Continued after notes on Object, Motive, Circumstances…

3. Principle of Double Effect What if a bad side effect cannot be avoided. Can you still take action? What if a bad side effect cannot be avoided. Can you still take action? E.g., to beat an infection, you must have a leg removed. Is that ethical? E.g., to beat an infection, you must have a leg removed. Is that ethical?

4. Is it moral to… 1. Kill a fat guy to get his food in a famine? 1. Kill a fat guy to get his food in a famine? 2. Lie to make someone feel better? 2. Lie to make someone feel better? 3. Kill embryos for research to help others? 3. Kill embryos for research to help others? 4. Kill a serial killer, because the police don’t have enough evidence? 4. Kill a serial killer, because the police don’t have enough evidence? 5. Try to save lives if I drop atomic bomb on Japan? (300,000 vs. 1 million) 5. Try to save lives if I drop atomic bomb on Japan? (300,000 vs. 1 million) 6. Kill myself to give my son a heart? 6. Kill myself to give my son a heart? 7. Lie to the Nazis about hiding Jews? 7. Lie to the Nazis about hiding Jews?

5. Is it moral to… 8. Jump on a live grenade to save my platoon? 8. Jump on a live grenade to save my platoon? 9. Cut a rope because fallen climbers are pulling us all down? 9. Cut a rope because fallen climbers are pulling us all down? 10. Commit suicide to avoid pain from disease? 10. Commit suicide to avoid pain from disease? 11. Give clean needles to addicts on the street? 11. Give clean needles to addicts on the street? 12. Do racial profiling to stop terror? 12. Do racial profiling to stop terror? 13. Declare war on a country that is committing grave injustices 13. Declare war on a country that is committing grave injustices

6. Is it moral to… 14. Begin the American Revolution against England? 14. Begin the American Revolution against England? 15. Sell weapons to the enemy of my enemy? 15. Sell weapons to the enemy of my enemy? 16. Shoot someone in self defense? 16. Shoot someone in self defense? 17. Shoot through a hostage to get the terrorist? 17. Shoot through a hostage to get the terrorist? 18. Abort a child to save the mother? 18. Abort a child to save the mother? 19. Torture someone to get information to save lives? 19. Torture someone to get information to save lives? 20. Take the Native Americans’ land for settlers? 20. Take the Native Americans’ land for settlers?

7. Overall evaluation Morality can be tricky. Morality can be tricky. When does the end justify the means? When does the end justify the means? When there are enough people helped? When there are enough people helped? A good proportion of dead to alive? A good proportion of dead to alive? When it betters the human race? When it betters the human race? When the person helped is someone close to me? When the person helped is someone close to me?

8. Overall evaluation The end NEVER justifies the means The end NEVER justifies the means (justify = to make right) (justify = to make right) Common sayings: Common sayings: Two wrongs don’t make a right. Two wrongs don’t make a right. “The road to hell is paved with good intentions.” “The road to hell is paved with good intentions.”

9. End does not justify the means Three reasons: Three reasons: 1. What criteria (rule) should we use to decide when it does and when it doesn’t?

10. End does not justify the means (ENJM) Three reasons: Three reasons: 1. What criteria (rule) should we use to decide when it does and when it doesn’t? 2. Who gets to decide?

11. End does not justify the means (ENJM) Three reasons: Three reasons: 1. What criteria (rule) should we use to decide when it does and when it doesn’t? 2. Who gets to decide? 3. When I choose evil, I’m, in a way, becoming evil, because our actions affect our will and our soul. Plato said: “It is far better to suffer evil than to do it.”

12. The Greeks, Romans, Jews, and Christians all taught absolutes about morality. The Greeks, Romans, Jews, and Christians all taught absolutes about morality. Included in foundation of the U.S. Included in foundation of the U.S. “We hold these truths to be SELF- EVIDENT “We hold these truths to be SELF- EVIDENT All men are Equal, Life, Liberty, Freedom All men are Equal, Life, Liberty, Freedom

13. For example, we don’t negotiate with terrorists. Why not?

14. a. The president knows he’s not responsible for the deaths; the terrorists are b. We would end up on a slippery slope of encouraging more terrorists and not knowing which ones to appease…

15. But there are times we can do good things for good reasons, with bad side effects that are unchosen. The formal steps are… But there are times we can do good things for good reasons, with bad side effects that are unchosen. The formal steps are…

16. Four parts of the P.D.E.—KNOW! 1. The action must be morally good in itself or at least morally neutral 2. The good must be willed and the evil effect merely tolerated 3. The good effect must not come about as a result of the evil effect, but must come directly from the action itself 4. The good effect must be at least equivalent in importance to the evil effect (“proportional”)

17. Double Effect Review Not every action only has only good effects or bad effects. Not every action only has only good effects or bad effects. Sometimes, there are bad results even though the act itself, the intention, and the circumstances, are ALL good. Sometimes, there are bad results even though the act itself, the intention, and the circumstances, are ALL good. We use the principle of double effect to determine whether or not actions that have both good and evil effects are permissible. We use the principle of double effect to determine whether or not actions that have both good and evil effects are permissible.

18. The decision to perform an action which, as a consequence, has unintended bad results may only be made when… The decision to perform an action which, as a consequence, has unintended bad results may only be made when… 1) The good effect cannot be reasonable brought about in any other way… 2) And when 4 conditions have been met.

19. 4 Principles 1. The action must be morally good in itself or at least morally neutral 2. The good must be willed and the evil effect merely tolerated 3. The good effect must not come about as a result of the evil effect, but must come directly from the action itself 4. The good effect must be at least equivalent in importance to the evil effect (“proportional”)

20. The action must be morally good in itself or at least morally neutral The action must be GOOD (or indifferent) The action must be GOOD (or indifferent) (remember) It is never okay to perform a BAD act in order to get a good outcome/result. (remember) It is never okay to perform a BAD act in order to get a good outcome/result.

21. Abortion to save the life of the mother? Some have tried to justify abortion through the principle of double effect. Some have tried to justify abortion through the principle of double effect. Life of the mother is in danger Life of the mother is in danger Avoid bringing an unwanted child into the world. Avoid bringing an unwanted child into the world. This position can never fall under double effect since the action consists of the DIRECT killing of an innocent person. This position can never fall under double effect since the action consists of the DIRECT killing of an innocent person.

22. 2. The good must be willed and the evil effect merely tolerated The agent must have the right intention The agent must have the right intention Only the good effect can be willed. Only the good effect can be willed. Though foreseen, the evil effect must not be willed, but only permitted or tolerated Though foreseen, the evil effect must not be willed, but only permitted or tolerated One does not directly wish evil. One does not directly wish evil. But it may be allowed when it cannot be separated from the overriding good to be intended or accomplished. But it may be allowed when it cannot be separated from the overriding good to be intended or accomplished.

23. E.g. The physician who amputated a limb to prevent the spread of disease has the intention of stopping the disease. E.g. The physician who amputated a limb to prevent the spread of disease has the intention of stopping the disease. He knows that he will cripple the patient but it is for the greater good of preserving the patient’s life. He knows that he will cripple the patient but it is for the greater good of preserving the patient’s life.

24. 3. The good effect must not come about as a result of the evil effect, but must come directly from the action itself The good action must be the means of the good effect. The good action must be the means of the good effect. An evil action still isn’t justified even if it results in a good outcome. An evil action still isn’t justified even if it results in a good outcome. In order to invoke this principle, the act itself must be good. In order to invoke this principle, the act itself must be good.

25. For example… It is not morally justified to stage a military operation that targets innocent people who wield no military role or advantage, even if it’s believed that the action will bring about the end of the war. It is not morally justified to stage a military operation that targets innocent people who wield no military role or advantage, even if it’s believed that the action will bring about the end of the war. The sterilization of a woman who wants to limit the size of her family for financial or health reasons is also not morally justified The sterilization of a woman who wants to limit the size of her family for financial or health reasons is also not morally justified

26. 4. The good effect must be at least equivalent in importance to the evil effect The good effect must be proportional to the evil effect The good effect must be proportional to the evil effect Ideally the good would outweigh the evil. Ideally the good would outweigh the evil. I.e. when there is a foreseeable evil effect of an action, there must be an equal or greater good effect for the act to be considered moral I.e. when there is a foreseeable evil effect of an action, there must be an equal or greater good effect for the act to be considered moral

27. Contrast: I choose  evil motive (always wrong) I choose  evil motive (always wrong) I choose  evil object for good motive I choose  evil object for good motive (always wrong, because ENJM) I choose  good object for good motive (good!) I choose  good object for good motive (good!) I choose  good object for good motive  I choose  good object for good motive  bad side effect I want (now, bad motive!)  I choose  good object for good motive  bad side effect I do not want, but tolerate, for proportionate reason (this is PDE, and it can be chosen)

28. Example 1 A man is climbing, and the person below him falls and the rope is threatening to take them both down. Can one of them cut the rope, so the guy higher-up can live? A man is climbing, and the person below him falls and the rope is threatening to take them both down. Can one of them cut the rope, so the guy higher-up can live?

29. Example 1 PDE says: There is one physical action, but two effects. The good effect is intended The bad effect is foreseen but NOT intended. The bad is not the means to the end. The good effect is proportionate to the bad effect (a life saved)

30. Example 1 Intended good effect: remove deadly weight Intended good effect: remove deadly weight Unintended but foreseen bad effect: lower guy falls Unintended but foreseen bad effect: lower guy falls The motive is good: to save the guy higher up. You do not directly kill the lower guy, nor hope he dies. You hope he somehow survives. The motive is good: to save the guy higher up. You do not directly kill the lower guy, nor hope he dies. You hope he somehow survives. Proportionality: life risked but life saved. If you do nothing, both will fall. Proportionality: life risked but life saved. If you do nothing, both will fall.

31. Example 2 Jump on Grenade: Jump on Grenade: Shield others from blast (intended good effect) Shield others from blast (intended good effect) Get blasted (foreseen but unintended bad effect) Get blasted (foreseen but unintended bad effect) Motive is good: to save life, and hoping the grenade does NOT go off. He does not directly kill himself, he is killed be the grenade that someone else threw Motive is good: to save life, and hoping the grenade does NOT go off. He does not directly kill himself, he is killed be the grenade that someone else threw Proportionality: a life risked to save other lives. Do nothing and many could die. Proportionality: a life risked to save other lives. Do nothing and many could die.

32. Example 3 Ectopic pregnancy or cancerous uterus: cutting out a growth where the baby is… Ectopic pregnancy or cancerous uterus: cutting out a growth where the baby is… Intended good effect: remove cancer or unsustainable fallopian tube Intended good effect: remove cancer or unsustainable fallopian tube Unintended bad effect: the baby won’t live. But you are not killing the baby directly. Unintended bad effect: the baby won’t live. But you are not killing the baby directly. Motive is to save the mother’s life Motive is to save the mother’s life Proportionality: life and life. Do nothing and both die. Proportionality: life and life. Do nothing and both die.

33. Example 4 Self-defense: I cannot stop killer except to shoot (tried shutting door, calling police, etc) Self-defense: I cannot stop killer except to shoot (tried shutting door, calling police, etc) Intended effect: stop the killer Intended effect: stop the killer Foreseen but unintended effect: the killer might die from the wound Foreseen but unintended effect: the killer might die from the wound Motive: to save my life Motive: to save my life Proportionality: I endanger his life (or take his life) because mine is being endangered (and possible taken) Proportionality: I endanger his life (or take his life) because mine is being endangered (and possible taken)

34. Principle of Double Effect Classic examples: Classic examples: 1. Self-defense 2. Just war 3. Removing cancerous uterus, perhaps even in pregnancy 4. Ectopic pregnancy 5. Taking medications with side-effects 6. Voting (since all candidates are imperfect) 7. Many others…

35. Hierarchy of Rights The “Hierarchy of Rights” helps resolve some cases of proportionality more easily. The “Hierarchy of Rights” helps resolve some cases of proportionality more easily. There are three inalienable rights (according to John Locke) There are three inalienable rights (according to John Locke) Life, Liberty and Property Life, Liberty and Property These are in order of importance These are in order of importance Life is needed to have liberty, and liberty is needed to use property. Life is needed to have liberty, and liberty is needed to use property.

36. So… So… Life trumps liberty Life trumps liberty (Right to life trumps mother’s liberty) (Right to life trumps mother’s liberty) Liberty trumps property Liberty trumps property (Right of slave’s freedom trumps slaveholder’s claim) (Right of slave’s freedom trumps slaveholder’s claim) This makes some cases a little easier. This makes some cases a little easier.

37. So… So… Stealing from a rich person when starving? Is it stealing? Is it justified? Stealing from a rich person when starving? Is it stealing? Is it justified?

38. So… So… Stealing from a rich person when starving? Is it stealing? Is it justified? Stealing from a rich person when starving? Is it stealing? Is it justified? It may not be stealing at all, because it is a life right, which trumps a property right (as long as the rich man has enough food). It may not be stealing at all, because it is a life right, which trumps a property right (as long as the rich man has enough food). This does not justify ordinary theft or looting, even from the richest person. This does not justify ordinary theft or looting, even from the richest person.